Rapeseed

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Rapeseed
Flowering rapeseed (Brassica napus) in Mecklenburg

Flowering rapeseed ( Brassica napus ) in Mecklenburg

Systematics
Eurosiden II
Order : Cruciferous (Brassicales)
Family : Cruciferous vegetables (Brassicaceae)
Tribe : Brassiceae
Genre : Cabbage ( Brassica )
Type : Rapeseed
Scientific name
Brassica napus
L.
blooming rape field in Brandenburg

Oilseed rape ( Brassica napus ), also known as Reps or Lewat , is a species of the cruciferous family (Brassicaceae). It is an economically important crop . The seeds are mainly used to obtain rapeseed oil and the by- product rapeseed cake . The turnip Brassica napus subsp. rapifera (Syn .: Brassica napus subsp. napobrassica ) is a subspecies of rapeseed ( Brassica napus ).

Possibility of confusion

Yellow-flowering fields in late summer and autumn are also often mistaken for rapeseed stocks, but during this period it is almost always yellow mustard , which is also a cruciferous mustard and is grown in Central Europe for green manure .

description

Cross section of a stem
Detail of an inflorescence with flower buds and open flowers; the four nailed yellow petals are easy to see

Vegetative characteristics

Oilseed rape is an annual or biennial herbaceous plant and reaches heights of 30 to 150 centimeters. A fleshy taproot can be formed. The upright stem is branched at the top. The above-ground parts of the plant are occasionally very weakly ciliate on the veins and the leaf margins, but mostly completely bald or slightly hairy at the base.

The basal leaves standing at the lower part of the stem consist of a petiole up to 15 centimeters long and a leaf blade that is 5 to 25 (rarely up to 40) centimeters and a width of 2 to 7 (rarely up to 10) Centimeter in outline ovoid, oblong-round to lanceolate, pinnately lobed or lyre-shaped, sometimes undivided. The end lobe is egg-shaped and serrated on the edge, wavy or entire. On each side of the midrib there are one to six lateral leaf lobes, significantly smaller than the end lobes, occasionally absent and also serrated, wavy or entire on the edge. The leaves at the top of the stem are sessile with a leaf blade that is lanceolate, egg-shaped or oblong with a length of up to 8 centimeters and a width of up to 3.5 centimeters, their ear-shaped blade base surrounds the stem and the leaf edge is smooth or wavy .

Inflorescence, flower and fruit

Depending on the weather, the flowering time of a specimen is around three to five weeks, but a single flower has already faded after one to two days. 20 to 60 flowers stand together in a terminal, racemose inflorescence .

The hermaphrodite flowers are fourfold. The four ascending or rarely almost upright sepals are elongated with a length of 5 to 10 millimeters and a width of 1.5 to 2.5 millimeters. The four bright to pale yellow petals are usually 1 to 1.6 (0.9 to 1.8) centimeters long and usually 6 to 9 (5 to 10) millimeters wide, wide obovate with a rounded upper part End and a 5 to 9 millimeter long nail . There are six stamens . The stamens are (rarely up to 5) mostly 7 to 10 millimeters long and the 1.5 to 2.5 millimeters long anthers are elongated. The ovary is elongated with a short to barely recognizable stylus and a cephalic scar . Both self-fertilization within the flower and cross-pollination by bees occur.

Rapeseed pollen grain (400 ×)

The bulky or ascending, straight fruit stalk is usually 1.2 to 2.3 (1 to 3) centimeters long. The sessile pod is 5 to 9.5 (3.5 to 11) centimeters long and 3.5 to 5 millimeters in diameter, linear, cylindrical to slightly square and contains twelve to twenty seeds. The dark brown to blackish round seeds are spherical with a diameter of 1.5 to 2.5 (1.2 to 3) millimeters with a finely wetted surface.

genetics

Brassica napus is an allopolyploid hybrid that emerged from a hybridization of turnips ( Brassica rapa ) and vegetable cabbage ( Brassica oleracea ). The genome of oilseed rape consists of 38 chromosomes , of which 20 and 18 are from the two original forms.

history

Rapeseed has been cultivated for centuries because of the high oil content of its seeds. The rape plant was already known to the Romans. The rapeseed originally comes from the eastern Mediterranean region and was used to produce cooking oil and, above all, lamp oil. In India there is evidence of its use as early as 2000 BC. It has only been grown in Central Europe since the 14th century. From the 17th century, the cultivation takes place on a larger scale. In north-western Germany and the Netherlands, rapeseed was the most important oil crop in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the middle and east of Germany, on the other hand, the closely related turnips predominated. At first, rapeseed mainly supplied fuel for oil lamps. In the early 19th century, the cultivation of rapeseed increased as the use of oil as lighting and food became increasingly popular. As an edible oil , rapeseed oil was only used to a limited extent because of its bitter taste, which was due to its high erucic acid content . At best, in times of hunger, rapeseed oil was increasingly used as food. The cultivation of rapeseed collapsed in the second half of the 19th century when inexpensive oil imports and tropical and subtropical edible oils came onto the market. In 1878 188,000 hectares of rapeseed were still cultivated in the German Empire , 36 years later it was only 87,711 hectares.

In both world wars, the cultivation of rapeseed was forced in Germany in order to free itself from the dependence on fat and oil imports. Especially margarine was made from local rapeseed oil. Only partially suitable as edible oil, unsuitable as animal feed, rapeseed oil was mainly limited to the utilization of technical oils (fuel for oil lamps, lubricants for (steam) machines, raw material for soap production). This changed from around the mid-1970s. New varieties with two new characteristics came onto the market: The oil from this 00 rapeseed (“double zero”) only contained small amounts of the bitter-tasting erucic acid and was almost free of mustard oil glycosides . Until then, these toxic substances had largely ruled out their use as food or animal feed.

After the new breeds initially focused on the utilization as nutritionally valuable edible oil and as a raw material for edible fats, rapeseed has increasingly been used as a renewable raw material . In 2007 three quarters of the rapeseed oil produced in Germany was used for the production of biofuels or for recycling in industry.

Cultivation

Blooming rape field near Neu Gaarz
Habit and basal leaves of winter rape in April
Rapeseed fruit cluster
Opened rapeseed pod

Breeding and varieties

Until the 1970s, rapeseed could hardly be used as food or feed; because it contained considerable amounts of the monounsaturated erucic acid and glucosinolates . Erucic acid makes up more than half of the fatty acids in conventional rapeseed varieties, it causes organ damage and heart problems in humans and mammals. Because of the glucosinolates, rape press residues were only allowed to be in small amounts in the animal feed. Because of the intense smell of cabbage, the animals ate less, and glucosinolates also change the thyroid . In addition, mustard oils were formed in the press residue, which cause digestive disorders in animals, and chicken eggs acquire a fishy taste.

Zero, double zero and plus zero rapeseed

Since 1974, rape genotypes that are practically erucic acid-free (less than 2 percent in the oil) and therefore suitable for human consumption have been developed under the name Null-Raps (0-rape), the seeds of which contain a higher proportion of the better tolerated oleic and linolenic acid . Livio was the first commercially available rapeseed cooking oil in (West) Germany.

However, zero oilseed rape still contained glucosinolates, which make it difficult to use as animal feed. Therefore, attempts were made to grow rapeseed with a lower content of glucosinolates, so-called double-zero rapeseed (00 rapeseed). In 1981 the winter rape variety LIBRADOR was entered in the German list of varieties as the first double-zero rapeseed variety. The LIGLANDOR variety followed as early as 1982, and in 1983 the LINDORA, LIROPA and ELENA varieties were added to the list of varieties. With each new variety registration, the gap in yield between the 0 varieties and 00 varieties decreases. The problem of the performance test, caused by game browsing (the game obviously eats the low-glucosinolate types), led to the fact that the spread of the results between the 00 varieties is much greater than between the 0 varieties. The composition of the fatty acids in 00 rapeseed oil is very similar to that of olive oil . The proportion of essential fatty acids , especially α-linolenic acid, is several times higher than that of olive oil. The double-zero rapeseed varieties developed in Canada and cultivated throughout North America were originally also called canola ( Can adian o il, l ow a cid) for marketing reasons . Meanwhile, canola in many parts of America and Australia generally used to refer to rape, partly because of the connotation of the English expression rape seed ( rape means not only rape and rape ).

In Germany today, almost the entire cultivation area is cultivated with 00 rape. In addition, for the production of erucic acid as an industrial raw material, varieties rich in erucic acid but low in glucosinolate were bred, plus zero rape (+ 0 rape) or HEAR ( high eruic acid rapeseed ). The press residue can also be fed to these types of food. However, 00 rape can no longer be grown for human consumption on areas that were once planted with + 0 rape , as this can be contaminated with all + 0 rape ( volunteer rape ).

Long-term consumption of oilseed rape in large quantities can cause anemia in ruminants .

Since inhibitors such as the content of mustard glycosides are reduced in 00 rape , there is an increased and sometimes exclusive intake of this rape, for example in deer, especially in winter months. The associated high protein content and the low proportion of crude fiber in the food lead to severe digestive disorders in deer such as foamy fermentation of the rumen contents and thus to destruction of the rumen microflora and fauna, among other things. This alone leads to death in many deer, other animals die after one to three weeks of haemolytic anemia , which is probably due to the presence of S- methylcysteine ​​sulfoxide in rape. Ingesting only one grain plant normally contradicts the feeding strategy of deer. Investigations into which and how many deer died in Austria found that there were a noticeably large number of young animals. The wildlife biologist Fred Kurt therefore suspects that these are young animals that have lost touch with their jumps . In relation to the high number of deer, a comparatively small number dies.

More varieties

  • HOLLi rape ( H igh O leic, L ow Li nolenic), also HOLL rape, is a cultivated form with a modified fatty acid composition. The oil is very heat-stable and harmful trans fatty acids are less likely to form when heated .
  • HO rape (high oleic acid rape; high oleic acid ), this has an increased oleic acid content.
  • 000-rapeseed (triple-low, triple-zero), was already bred in Canada in 1976, this rapeseed is, in addition to 00-rapeseed, low in fiber.

Hybrid varieties

In July 1994, the world's first hybrid oilseed rape variety was entered in the list of varieties in France . In this case, the “cytoplasmic male sterility ” (cms) of the mother line is retained in the hybrid, so the growing hybrid plant does not produce pollen and is therefore male sterile. In consumer cultivation, seed mixtures called “composite hybrids” are sown from the sterile hybrid variety and a conventional variety as a pollen donor.

As early as the early 1980s, so-called “compound varieties” were developed at the Justus Liebig University in Giessen , which achieved significant importance on the market (e.g. Elvira). Here, specifically combined lines bloomed with each other. These lines were relatively pure breeding, but in contrast to the hybrid variety components did not show such a high proportion of inbreeding.

In 1995 an HL rape (high lauric) was developed in the USA , this has a laurel gene and contains up to 40% lauric acid . It is used for industrial purposes. There are also the high myristic and high stearic varieties with an increased myristic or stearic acid content , as well as low linolenic types with a reduced linolenic acid content .

In 1996, so-called “restored hybrids” were approved for cultivation in Germany. These bloom like conventional line varieties and therefore offer the same yield security as these, but combined with higher vitality and higher yield potential. In 2002 hybrid varieties were found on around 40% of the winter rape cultivation area in Germany.

Genetically modified varieties

Rapeseed is one of the first crops in which genetically modified varieties were grown on a large scale. By changing the rapeseed crop, oilseed rape plants with various beneficial properties have been developed. Genetically modified rapeseed varieties have so far been grown primarily in the USA (82% of the rapeseed area in 2007), Canada (87% of the rapeseed area in 2007) and in Australia (since 2008). In the EU so far there have only been approvals for harvesting as food or feed, but none for commercial cultivation.

Location

Almost ready for harvest

The demands of rapeseed on the soil are comparable to those of wheat . Oilseed rape requires deep soil that allows unhindered root development to below the cultivation horizon. Deep loam soils with pH values ​​around 6.5 are particularly suitable for cultivation. Unsuitable locations for oilseed rape are very clayey soils with a strong tendency to waterlogging due to restrictions in tillage, as well as extremely light or shallow soils, where dry periods reduce the yield security. In bog soils with a risk of late frost, the cultivation of winter rape can damage the flowers , burst the plant stems or freeze the stand with total losses.

Oilseed rape has only a limited frost hardiness down to around −15 ° C to −20 ° C with snow-free soil. If the soil structure changes due to the effects of frost (freezing), roots can also tear off. Warm midday temperatures when the plants begin to breathe towards the end of winter can lead to drying out, as the roots cannot absorb enough water when the ground is still frozen .

Crop rotation

Oilseed rape is not self-tolerant, which means that the field should not be planted with rape for two to three years after cultivation in order to avoid an increased occurrence of specific plant diseases and pests. Rape can therefore occupy a fraction of at most 25 to 33 percent in rotation to lower yields or increased use of pesticides should be avoided. Cultivation breaks are also necessary before the cultivation of related crops after rapeseed, for example in the case of beta beet because of beet nematodes and of cabbage and stubble because of carburetor .

Oilseed rape is important in crop rotation with cereals, as it promotes the structure and biological activity of the soil and, when parts of the plants (roots, straw) remain in the field, it helps to form humus. Summer rape, in particular, ensures that the soil is well ventilated with good roots. Winter rapeseed can absorb quantities of nitrogen released by previous crops in autumn. If rapeseed remains in the soil, it will still be able to germinate even after a long time (up to ten years) and can interfere with new crops when they grow out.

sowing

Winter rape is predominantly grown in Central Europe. The seeds are sown in autumn and harvested in the following early summer. In Canada, the world's largest rapeseed producer, on the other hand, summer rapeseed predominates.

In Germany, a sowing date for winter rape is targeted in the second half of August. It is possible to sow until the first week of September. The aim is for the plants to go into winter in a strong rosette stage , but not yet to form an elongated stem axis.

Oilseed rape requires an optimal seed bed with a slightly solidified seed placement horizon (the depth of the soil in which the seed is placed) and a flat, loose surface. 35–70 grains of winter rape per square meter are sown shallow with a placement depth of two to three centimeters. The sowing rate for hybrids is slightly lower than for line varieties. Row spacings of around 13 to 26 cm are common. Both drill sowing and more precise, but more complex single-grain sowing are used .

fertilization

The rape plant makes high demands on the nutrient supply. Compared to cereals, the main nutrients in rapeseed are nitrogen, potassium and sulfur. Among the micronutrient supply, rapeseed needs a lot of boron , manganese and molybdenum .

Weed control and crop protection

Rape was cultivated as a root crop until the 1970s - in organic farming, weed control is still carried out using a machine hoe. In conventional and integrated cultivation, weeds are controlled almost exclusively with herbicides , in addition to general agricultural measures . Genetically modified herbicide-resistant rapeseed enables the use of non-selective herbicides, but is not permitted for cultivation in Europe. Plant protection products ( insecticides , fungicides and growth regulators ) are applied around three times on average in Germany during the cultivation period.

Diseases

Pests

Accompanying vegetation

In the widespread cultivation of cereals, volunteer cereals (growth from seeds that remained on the field during the cereal harvest) regularly occur. The field foxtail is one of the most common weed grasses . Burdock and chickweed often appear on weeds , as well as camomiles , especially on poorly aerated soils . Unilateral use of herbicides also promotes cruciferous weeds, which are related to rapeseed, as well as pansies and cranesbills .

harvest

Direct threshing of rapeseed, the rapeseed knives can be seen at the ends of the cutterbar
Swaddling with the combine harvester, a pick-up is mounted instead of the cutting unit

In Germany, the standing rapeseed stock is usually harvested in one operation using the so-called direct threshing; in the coastal regions, the multi-part swaddling process is used because of the increased incidence of wind, but also to avoid premature seed loss from the pods.

With direct threshing, the rape is harvested as soon as the grains have turned black and rustle in the pod when shaken . The straw may still be partly green at this point. In Germany, this is usually the case in the second half of July. The conventional combine harvester is used as the harvesting machine for direct threshing , although it is widely equipped with additional equipment such as an extension of the table behind the cutting unit because of the long rapeseed straw and side knives on the cutting unit to separate the tangled rapeseed plants. Because the rapeseed is fine compared to the grain of the grain, the threshing mechanism of the combine harvester must be equipped with different sieves and plates adapted to the rapeseed grain. Sometimes the rapeseed crop is chemically killed during siccation in order to facilitate direct threshing. As a problem with direct threshing, there are still green pods in the lower area, also known as rubber pods . These contain grains with a higher thousand grain weight . Combine harvesters can only grind these pods at best. The water that escapes in the process also means that dry grains stick to the straw and cannot be harvested.

With swaths, the plants are usually mowed one to two weeks earlier, namely as soon as the grains begin to brown on both sides, with a swath mower and placed in a swath . After the field has dried, the swath is picked up and threshed by a combine harvester equipped with a pick-up instead of the cutting unit.

Economical meaning

Yield

Average yields of winter rape in Germany (in decitons per hectare)

In 2018, the yield per hectare for rapeseed was 30 dt / ha in Germany, 30 dt / ha in Austria and 37 dt / ha in Switzerland. The mean oil content of rapeseed is 45 to 50 percent, the protein content ranges from 17 to 25 percent.

Oil production

Since the 1990s, rapeseed has been the oilseed with the second highest share of the world market after soy . In 2007, rapeseed accounted for 12.9% of global oilseed production. Around 54.1 million tonnes of rapeseed were produced worldwide in 2008/09, which is more than four times the annual production in the early 1980s (12.7 million tonnes on average between 1980 and 1982). Rapeseed oil production is also increasing sharply; the share of total vegetable oil production for the 2008/09 marketing year is estimated at 14.5 percent.

According to the FAO, 25.9 million tons of rapeseed oil were produced worldwide in 2014 .

World harvest

Around 75 million t of rapeseed were harvested worldwide in 2018. The 10 largest producer countries together harvested around 84.7% of the world harvest.

Largest rapeseed producers (2018)
rank country Quantity
(in t )
1 CanadaCanada Canada 20,342,600
2 China People's RepublicPeople's Republic of China People's Republic of China 13.281.200
3 IndiaIndia India 8,430,000
4th FranceFrance France 4,945,589
5 AustraliaAustralia Australia 3,893,071
6th GermanyGermany Germany 3,670,600
7th UkraineUkraine Ukraine 2,750,600
8th PolandPoland Poland 2,203,869
9 United KingdomUnited Kingdom United Kingdom 2,012,000
10 RussiaRussia Russia 1,988,697
world 75.001.459

Cultivation by varieties

In Europe, 00 rape varieties are grown almost exclusively as winter rape. Summer cultivation has lost its importance (372,000 hectares in 2007). Almost 60 percent of the summer rapeseed areas in the EU are in the Baltic states. In Germany, summer rape cultivation has declined by almost 90 percent to 12,800 hectares since the mid-1990s.

Cultivation according to types of use

The 00 rapeseed varieties that are mostly grown in Germany are suitable for use in the food sector as well as for use as a renewable raw material. No food or feed may be grown on areas that are designated as set- aside areas. Rapeseed cultivated on these areas is therefore used exclusively as a renewable raw material. Since the compulsory set-aside was abolished in 2008 and the EU's energy crop premium for rapeseed on non-set-aside areas will be paid for the last time in 2009, the various types of use for rapeseed products are now competing without the influence of agricultural subsidies.

Rapeseed as a renewable raw material was cultivated on around 1.0 million hectares in Germany in 2008, which is almost 20 percent less than in the previous year for the first time after years of growth. Almost 64 percent of the nationwide cultivation area in 2007 was in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Brandenburg and Saxony-Anhalt.

Cultivation and use by country and region

91% of world rapeseed production takes place in the European Union, China, Canada and India. Canada tops the list of export countries, followed by Australia until 2006. Drought-related crop failures in Australia and an increasing supply of rapeseed from the CIS countries , especially the Ukraine, increase the importance of Eastern Europe for the international rapeseed market.

Within the European Union, rapeseed production dominates in France with 5.4 million tons and Germany with 4.8 million tons (2012 harvest). Great Britain and Poland are other important producer countries in the EU. The acreage has been expanded significantly in recent years, especially by some countries in the new EU states (Romania, Poland, the Czech Republic).

The cultivation area in Germany has had an increasing tendency in the past decades: until reunification, it rose in the Federal Republic from around 100,000 hectares in the early 1980s to around 400,000 hectares in 1989. In the GDR , the cultivation area rose from 124,900 hectares in 1966 157,900 hectares in 1985. The area under rape cultivation in Germany was also increased from around 950,000 hectares in 1991 to the previous high of around 1.45 million hectares for the 2008 harvest.

More and more rapeseed is being grown in Switzerland too. In 2018, the acreage there rose by 11.7% to 22,811 hectares.

use

Nutrition, feed and material use

The rapeseed, the part of the plant used for economic purposes, is primarily used to produce rapeseed oil , which is used as edible oil and animal feed, but also as a biofuel. Rapeseed oil is also used in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries and serves as a base for materials such as paints, bio-plastics , cold foam , plasticizers , surfactants and biogenic lubricants .

Depending on the processing method, around two thirds of the rapeseed mass in the form of rapeseed cake , rapeseed expeller or rapeseed meal is obtained as by- products of rapeseed oil extraction in oil mills . These products are mainly used as protein-rich animal feed and can partially replace imports of soy . Glycerine , which is a by-product of the processing of rapeseed oil into biodiesel, is also used in the animal feed industry, but increasingly also in the chemical industry and as a bioenergy carrier .

The rapeseed straw produced during harvesting usually remains on the field as a humus and nutrient supplier, but it can also be used for energy.

Rape fields are very important for beekeeping . Rapeseed blossoms are one of the most important and most abundant sources of nectar for honeybees in Germany, among other things, a rape blossom produces nectar with a total sugar content of 0.4 to 2.1 mg in 24 hours. One hectare of rapeseed can produce a honey harvest of up to 494 kg in one flowering season. Due to the large-scale cultivation, the fine and lard-like candying rapeseed honey is also easy to harvest as single- variety honey.

Rapeseed leaves and stems of some varieties are edible and are mainly used as vegetables in Asian and African cuisine.

Bioenergy sources

Rapeseed has developed into an important bioenergy carrier since the turn of the millennium. Rapeseed oil is mainly used for the biofuels vegetable oil fuel and biodiesel ( rapeseed oil methyl ester ). In addition, the oil is used as fuel in vegetable oil block-type thermal power stations (CHP) and as fuel - pure or in admixture - in oil heating systems that are adapted for vegetable oil operation ( vegetable oil burners ). Rapeseed cake is currently used almost exclusively in animal feed, but it can also be burned or used as a substrate in biogas plants to generate heat and electricity.

In addition to the general advantages of bioenergy sources such as renewability , extensive CO 2 neutrality and the ability to store solar energy, the energetic use of vegetable oils is supported by the fact that they are available in large quantities and that they can be used with relatively little technical effort. An important factor from the point of view of the availability of resources is the use of the by-products as protein-rich animal feed with increasing global demand for protein. In Germany rapeseed oil is currently the only indigenous vegetable oil that is available in large quantities for energetic use.

The use of rapeseed as an energy crop is criticized for the land requirement with increasing competition for land for food and feed. Partly in connection with this, the effects of biofuel production on world market prices for food are discussed. In addition, the resource consumption of rapeseed as a bioenergy carrier must be taken into account: The fertilization of the plant and, to a lesser extent, the processing of the rapeseed into vegetable oil and biodiesel consume energy and raw materials, the water consumption of the rapeseed plant during growth is also considerable.

It will be discussed how nitrogen fertilization affects the climate balance of rapeseed. Part of the nitrogen can be converted into nitrous oxide (N 2 O, "laughing gas"), a greenhouse gas that is up to 320 times as powerful as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). The amount actually released depends, among other things, on the proportion of nitrogen in the fertilizer that is actually converted into nitrous oxide and released into the atmosphere. Factors are also important for the calculation, such as B. the amount of nitrogen absorbed by the plant, the actual amount of fertilizer used and the inclusion of by-products (rapeseed meal) in the balance. Various studies call a positive climate balance. A study in 2008 that calculated a negative carbon footprint for fuel made from rapeseed was well received in the press. However, the assessment of the above-mentioned factors was criticized by many as outdated and scientifically unsustainable.

literature

  • Bertrand Matthäus, Ernst Wilhelm Münch (Ed.): Product knowledge oil plants / vegetable oils - ingredients, analysis, cleaning, drying, storage, marketing, processing, use. Agrimedia, 2009, ISBN 978-3-86263-060-8 .
  • Tai-yien Cheo, Lianli Lu, Guang Yang, Ihsan A. Al-Shehbaz & Vladimir Dorofeev: Brassicaceae. In: Wu Zheng-yi & Peter H. Raven (eds.): Flora of China. Volume 8 - Brassicaceae through Saxifragaceae , Science Press and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing and St. Louis 2002, ISBN 0-915279-93-2 , Brassica napus. P. 21 - online with the same text as the printed work. (Section description).
  • Klaus-Ulrich Heyland, Herbert Hanus, Ernst Robert Keller: Oil fruits, fiber plants, medicinal plants and special crops. In: Handbook of Plant Cultivation. Volume 4, Eugen Ulmer KG, Stuttgart 2006, pp. 41-148, ISBN 978-3-8001-3203-4 .
  • Olaf Christen, Wolfgang Friedt : Winter rape - The manual for professionals. DLG-Verlag 2007; 323 pages, ISBN 978-3-7690-0680-3
  • W. Schuster: Oil plants in Europe , DLG-Verlag, ISBN 3-7690-0501-5 .
  • James K. Daun, NA Michael Eskin, Dave Hickling: Canola: Chemistry, Production, Processing, and Utilization. AOCS Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-9818936-5-5 .

Web links

Commons : Rapeseed ( Brassica napus )  - Collection of images
Wiktionary: Raps  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g Tai-yien Cheo, Lianli Lu, Guang Yang, Ihsan A. Al-Shehbaz & Vladimir Dorofeev: Brassicaceae , In: Wu Zheng-yi & Peter H. Raven (eds.): Flora of China , Volume 8 - Brassicaceae through Saxifragaceae , Science Press and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing and St. Louis, 2002, ISBN 0-915279-93-2 , Brassica napus , p. 21 - the same text online as the printed work.
  2. ^ A b C. Gómez Campo: Brassica . In: Flora Iberica. Volume 4, pp. 367-368.
  3. ↑ a b Klaus-Ulrich Heyland (Ed.): Special plant cultivation. 7th edition, Ulmer, Stuttgart, 1952, 1996, ISBN 3-8001-1080-6 , p. 106 f.
  4. ↑ a b c d Agency for Renewable Raw Materials (Ed.): Plants for Industry (PDF; 1.6 MB). Gülzow, 2005. p. 7.
  5. ^ Frank Kempken, Renate Kempken: Genetic engineering in plants. 3rd edition, Springer, 2006, ISBN 3-540-33661-3 , p. 2.
  6. ^ A b Klaus-Ulrich Heyland, Herbert Hanus, Ernst Robert Keller: Oil fruits, fiber plants, medicinal plants and special cultures , In: Handbuch des Pflanzenbaues. Vol. 4, pp. 43-44, ISBN 3-8001-3203-6 .
  7. ↑ Siegfried Graser, N. Jack, S. Pantoulier (ed.): Agrarmärkte 2007. Vol. 4, series of publications by the Bavarian State Institute for Agriculture (LfL), Freising-Weihenstephan 2008, ISSN  1611-4159 , pp. 78-96, online (PDF; 3.22 MB), accessed on May 11, 2017.
  8. ^ Gerhard Geisler: Raps. In: Gerhard Geisler: Crop production. Paul Parey Verlag, 2nd ed., 1988, ISBN 3-489-61510-7 , p. 333.
  9. ↑ Rapeseed cultivation in Germany - boost from double zero rapeseed. Retrieved January 30, 2017 : "In the mid-1980s, farmers had new rapeseed varieties that were both low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolate and called 00-rapeseed (double zero)."
  10. ↑ H. Becker: Plant breeding. Ulmer, Stuttgart, 1993, ISBN 978-3-8252-1744-0 .
  11. ↑ Institute of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology: Brassica oleracea ssp. - Veterinary toxicology , accessed September 3, 2009
  12. ↑ K. Ondereschka et al .: Increased losses of roe deer after ingestion of 00 rape. In: Journal for Hunting Science. Volume 33, Number 3, 191–205, doi : 10.1007 / BF02241920 .
  13. ↑ Fred Kurt: The deer in the cultural landscape Ecology, social behavior, hunting and protection. Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-440-09397-2 , p. 102 f.
  14. ↑ Technical information for plant production RWZ Rhein-Main eG.
  15. ↑ HOLLi-Raps opens new markets! (PDF; 1.31 MB), dsv-saaten.de, accessed on May 13, 2017.
  16. ↑ a b Thomas Miedaner: Cultivated Plants. Springer, 2014, ISBN 978-3-642-55292-2 , p. 196 f.
  17. ^ Fereidoon Shahidi: Canola and Rapeseed. Springer, 1990, ISBN 978-1-4613-6744-4 , pp. 10, 15.
  18. ^ J. Relf-Eckstein and G. Rakow: Breeding Triple Low Canola. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Research Center, Saskatoon, SK 2007, online (PDF; 349 kB).
  19. ↑ Johann Vollmann, Istvan Rajčan: Oil Crops. Springer, 2009, ISBN 978-0-387-77593-7 , p. 99, limited preview in the Google book search.
  20. ↑ Andreas Girke: New gene pools from resynthesized oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) for hybrid breeding (PDF; 1.3 MB), dissertation at the University of Göttingen, 2002.
  21. ↑ Raps ( memento from June 29, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) on transgen.de, accessed on May 13, 2017.
  22. ↑ Klaus-Ulrich Heyland (Ed.): Special plant cultivation. 7th edition, Ulmer, Stuttgart, 1952, 1996, ISBN 3-8001-1080-6 , p. 112.
  23. ↑ Cultivation telegram for winter rape. State Research Institute for Agriculture and Fisheries Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. ( Memento from August 26, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) ( MS Word ; 147 kB).
  24. ^ Horst Eichhorn (editor): Landtechnik. 7th edition, Ulmer, Stuttgart, 1952, 1999, ISBN 3-8001-1086-5 , p. 258 ff.
  25. ↑ BMEL: Special harvest determination .
  26. ↑ 2009 harvest: quantities and prices (PDF; 307 kB), accessed on September 7, 2009.
  27. ↑ a b c Crops> Rapeseed. In: FAO production statistics for 2018. fao.org, accessed on March 20, 2020 .
  28. ↑ a b c d e Herbert Goldhofer, Werner Schmid: Oil seeds and protein plants. In: Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft (LfL): Agrarmärkte 2008. Vol. 5, Freising-Weihenstephan 2009, ISSN  1611-4159 , pp. 45-60, online (PDF; 6.13 MB), accessed on May 12, 2017.
  29. ^ Crops processed> Oil, rapeseed. In: FAO statistics for products obtained (2017). fao.org, accessed January 30, 2019 .
  30. ↑ ZMP: Fewer summer oil crops grown in the EU ( Memento from February 21, 2009 in the Internet Archive ), March 18, 2008 and ZMP: Summer rape area reaches a new low ( Memento from February 21, 2009 in the Internet Archive ), March 18, 2008
  31. ↑ a b Genius GmbH: Project network communication management in biological safety research on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF): Rape cultivation in Germany. Boost from double zero rapeseed. Retrieved February 26, 2013.
  32. ↑ Dieter Rücker: The success story of rapeseed. Blooming landscapes. ( Memento of October 17, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 190 kB), Federal Association of German Plant Breeders , 2005.
  33. ↑ Alice Sager: Ten Facts About the New Numbers About Agriculture. In: bauernzeitung.ch. May 28, 2019. Retrieved May 28, 2019 .
  34. ^ Bavarian State Agency for Agriculture: Agricultural Markets 2007 .
  35. ↑ Josef Lipp et al .: Handbook of Apiculture - The Honey. 3. rework. Ed., Ulmer, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-8001-7417-0 , pp. 18, 37 f.
  36. ↑ BBK Biofuel Expert Info June 2007  ( page no longer available , search in web archives ).@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.biodiesel-splinter.de
  37. ↑ BBC News: Biofuels crime against humanity .
  38. ↑ Biosprit In: Zeit Online . September 16, 2009.
  39. ↑ Raiffeisen Climate Protection Initiative: Schultes criticizes the completely one-sided biofuel debate ( memento of February 10, 2012 in the Internet Archive ), April 22, 2008, accessed on March 7, 2010
  40. ↑ PJ Crutzen, AR Mosier, KA Smith, W. Winiwarter: N 2 O release from agro-biofuel production negates global warming reduction by replacing fossil fuels (PDF; 380 kB), 2007.
  41. ^ Sobering climate balance , online report on November 2, 2007, accessed on January 14, 2010.
  42. ↑ Biofuels could boost global warming, finds study , report on the study and the discussion that triggered the methodology, website of the Royal Society of Chemistry , accessed on January 14, 2010
  43. ↑ Comment by Wolfgang Friedt, Interdisciplinary Research Center for the Basics of Environmental Protection (IFZ), Justus Liebig University Giessen on the study N 2 O release from agro-biofuel production negates global warming reduction by replacing fossil fuels. by PJ Crutzen et al. ( Memento of November 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on July 27, 2009.