Chinese space station

This article is about a space station that is under construction. For information on the former Chinese space stations, see Tiangong .

Chinese space station
Dimensions
Span:	26.8 m
Length:	16.6 m
Depth:	4.2 m
Volume:	50 m³
Dimensions:	22.5 t
Orbit
Apogee height :	392 km
Perigee height :	367 km
Orbit inclination :	41.5 °
Orbital time :	approx. 92 min
COSPAR designation :	2021-035A
power supply
Electrical power:	9 kW
Solar cell area:	134 m²
Flight statistics measured on the Tianhe core module, current status
Time in orbit:	50 days
configuration
The Chinese space station. In the middle the core module, to the right and left the science modules still to be started, above a Tianzhou space transporter, below a Shenzhou spacecraft.

The Chinese Space Station ( Chinese 中國空間站 / 中国空间站, Pinyin Zhōngguó Kōngjiānzhàn ) is from the Office of Human Spaceflight developed in the future permanently manned space station in low Earth orbit from about 340 to 420 km altitude with an orbital inclination of approximately 42 °.

Construction of the station began on April 29, 2021 with the start of the “Tianhe” core module. By 2022, it is to be expanded by two science modules that are firmly connected to the core module in a T-shape, and then by a free-flying space telescope nearby that can be docked for maintenance work in 2024 . As of 2021, it is planned to expand the space station after a certain operating phase by a second T to a 干 shape, then with a permanent crew of six space travelers. Since the space station has to be moved occasionally, it must not have a mass of more than 180 t. Further expansion is therefore not possible.

history

The on 21 September 1992 by the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party of China approved Manned Space Program of the People's Republic of China , known for the date as "Project 921", consists of three phases:

1. Manned spaceships, later known as " Shenzhou "
2. Briefly inhabited space laboratories, later known as " Tiangong "
3. A long-term occupied space station

On September 25, 2010, one year before the first space laboratory , Tiangong 1 , was launched, the Politburo under Secretary General Hu Jintao officially approved the “Plan for a Manned Space Station” (载人 空间站 工程 实施 方案), or “Project 921-3” for short “, The corresponding funds were released by the State Council of the People's Republic of China . As a result, a new area of ​​responsibility was set up in the manned space program in October 2010, the so-called " space station system " (空间站 系统, Pinyin Kōngjiānzhàn Xìtǒng ). The space station system is under the responsibility of the Chinese Academy for Space Technology , a subsidiary of the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation , but the China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation and the China Electronics Technology Group Corporation are also involved in the development and construction of the space station . Like all areas of responsibility of the manned space program, the space station system has a more or less political commander (总指挥), currently Wang Xiang (王翔), and a technical director (总设计师), currently Yang Hong (杨宏, * 1963). Both are science councils with the rank of professors (研究员) at the Academy of Space Technology.

One of the key technologies for building a modular space station is the coupling mechanism. This system, which is similar to the Russian APAS , in which the active spaceship or module detects its position in relation to the station with the aid of a CCD sensor in the last phase of the approach process and automatically adjusts it, was implemented from February 2005, immediately after the second phase of the space program from Politburo, developed by the Research Institute 502 of the Chinese Academy of Space Technology in collaboration with the Research Institute of Image Processing of the Harbin Polytechnic University , one of the main problems being the partially blinding sunlight from constantly changing directions. It was first tested on November 3, 2011, when the Shenzhou 8 unmanned spacecraft docked at the Tiangong 1 space laboratory.

In 2010, at the start of the 921-3 project, it was assumed that the modules would be put into orbit with a Changzheng 2F launch vehicle (maximum payload 8.4 t). One year later, in 2011, work began on developing the Changzheng 5B heavy rocket , which can bring up to 25 t into a near-earth orbit and, thanks to its diameter of 5 m, can carry larger volumes than the Changzheng 2F with its 3.4 m even if you were to use a cantilevered payload fairing there. On May 5, 2020, the CZ-5B successfully completed its first test flight with the new generation spacecraft .

In the first expansion phase with a core module and two science modules, the entire station has a net weight of 66 t, which increases to 90 t with a coupled Tianzhou space transporter and two manned Shenzhou spaceships (one for transporting crews, the other as an escape space ship). Then there are a good 10 t of exchangeable payloads. When the dimensions of the space station were designed, the dimensions of the International Space Station, which has been under construction since 1998, were clear. However, the engineers made a conscious decision to go for a smaller format that would allow them to achieve maximum benefit with a limited amount of effort - the space station is financed solely by the People's Republic of China . A later expansion of the station by up to three additional modules had been kept open from the start.

The service life of the station was assumed to be 10 years until 2019, but in January 2020 the Chinese state television reported an operating time of 15 years. In order to be able to properly manage the payloads , the recruitment campaign for the 2020 selection group of the People's Liberation Army space corps launched by the Chinese Spaceman Training Center on April 23, 2018 addressed not only pilots, but also scientists, plus engineers responsible for construction, maintenance and Repair of the space station will be needed. While the early Shenzhou flights took off about every two years, the crew of the new space station is to be changed initially every four months and then regularly every six months; During the crew change, the station can accommodate six people for about ten days. Therefore, instead of 14 (1998) or 7 (2010), 18 people (17 men and one woman) were selected for the space corps in this selection group. The regular astronaut training lasts four years.

In November 2018, a sample copy of the core module was shown at the International Aerospace Exhibition in Zhuhai , which had been used for checking and confirming the craftsmanship (welding seams, etc.). At this point in time, the first prototypes of all systems were already being produced. At the end of 2018, the production of the final prototype of the core module began.

Construction phase

The construction of the station began on April 29, 2021 03:23 UTC with the start of the core module Tianhe with a heavy launcher type Changzheng 5B from the Wenchang Satellite Launch Center . In the first half of May 2021, a test of the mechanical arm of the station controlled by the Beijing Space Control Center took place, which was unfolded, moved from attachment point to attachment point along the core module like a tensioning caterpillar and was finally stowed back in its original location. On May 29, 2021, the Tianzhou 2 spacecraft first took off with a Changzheng 7 , and on June 17, 2021, the first crew took off with the Shenzhou 12 spacecraft . The crew should stay on the station for three months, check the reliable power supply via the solar modules and test the mechanical arm again on site. After that, the space freighter Tianzhou 3 and the next crew follows with the spacecraft Shenzhou 13. During these two layers have to test the key technologies of the space station, many are spacewalks planned. When the technical check has been completed to your satisfaction, the two science modules should be started and installed. After two years, at the end of 2022, the construction of the space station should be completed.

Spacecraft assembly building of the Jiuquan Cosmodrome

The starts must take place at precisely defined intervals, otherwise the coupling maneuvers cannot be carried out (“zero start window” or 零 窗口). This represents a considerable challenge, especially for refueling the Changzheng 5 and Changzheng 7, which use cryogenic fuels. The engineers use the actual start of the core module as a fixed point from which all other start times are calculated. Since the core module was successfully placed in its orbit during this launch on April 29, 2021, there was, however, a time window of ± 1 minute for the following launches.

A total of seven manned flights to the space station are planned by the end of 2023, all of which will be carried out with rockets of the Changzheng 2F / G type , with a largely fully assembled rocket always being kept ready for possible rescue missions, which, if there is no emergency, for the following mission is used regularly. This is possible because the spacecraft assembly building on the Jiuquan Cosmodrome was designed in 1994 in connection with the Tiangong space laboratory missions so that the parallel assembly of two rockets can be carried out in two workshops. For safety reasons, some components such as batteries and ignition devices for the engines are kept in a separate building. When the arrangement is made for a rescue mission, these components are installed and the missile is checked again, which the experts believe can easily be stored upright for six months. A rescue flight can take place ten days after the alarm, with a take-off window every 23 hours 32 minutes.

Names

The Chinese space station as a 3D model

For the naming of the station, its modules and the transport spaceship intended to supply it , the manned space flight agency, supported by the Internet company Tencent , launched a competition on April 8, 2011, in which all Chinese, regardless of whether they are in Germany or Abroad, were able to submit proposals from April 25th. On the one hand, this was intended as an advertising measure for the manned space program , and on the other hand, it was intended to establish the space station as a national symbol. From the total of 152,640 proposals submitted, a jury ( Yang Liwei etc.) first made a pre-selection of 30 names each. From these, 19.6 million Chinese people then voted 10 names each month in a month-long Internet vote, from which a commission of engineers, writers, etc. finally chose the final names. It then took another two years for the final names to be determined and approved by the State Council. On October 31, 2013, the Manned Space Agency announced the names:

• Entire space station: Tiangong (天宫, Heavenly Palace ), like the first two space laboratories , but without a number
• Core module: Tianhe (天和, heavenly harmony ), a quote from the Zhuangzi : the space station lives in harmony with the sky or space, the core module unites and harmonizes the other modules
• Science module: Wentian (问 天, sky survey ), in the sense of "to complain to the sky (about natural disasters or similar)"
• Space Telescope: Xuntian (巡天, sky screenable ) of Mao Zedong "send the plague God to hell" in the poem (送瘟神) "make his patrol in the sky" in the sense of use
• Transport spaceship : Tianzhou (天 舟, sky ship )

The term “Heavenly Palace” for the entire space station has not been used since 2018; since that time the space station has been simply called “space station” (空间站). The space telescope was originally supposed to be coupled to the core module. At the beginning of 2016, it was decided to orbit the earth separately, but close to the space station. The free space is now taken by a second science module called Mengtian (梦 天, heavenly dream ), an allusion to Xi Jinping's “ Chinese Dream ”, in which space travel is an important component .

In the same competition, proposals were also sought for the logo of the manned space program and the space station. The winning logo combined the character 中 for 中国 or “China” with the jet of fire from a launching rocket for the space spirit , the space station with its solar cell wings and the image of an eagle with outstretched wings for the soaring plans of the manned space program. The exact proportions and color scheme were then determined by the manned space flight office.

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For different purposes, there are also different lettering in addition to the space station pictogram . 中国 载人 航天, “China Manned Space” or “CMS” is used on the manned space program's website. The abbreviation “CMS” is usually found on rockets and spacecraft. When interacting with the media, the Manned Space Agency often uses the abbreviation “CMSA” for “China Manned Space Agency”. The space station itself is usually abbreviated abroad as “CSS” for “China Space Station”, analogous to “ISS” or “International Space Station”.

Modules

Tianhe core module

→ Main article : Tianhe core module

The core module Tianhe (dt .: Heavenly Harmony) is the control center of the space station, there are life support systems , power supply, navigation, propulsion and attitude control . The module is 16.6 m long, its largest diameter is 4.2 m and its takeoff weight is 22.5 t. The core module offers three space travelers space to live and work; Experiments can be carried out there even without the addition of the science modules.

Science module Wentian

The science module Wentian

The first science module, weighing around 22 t, fulfills its actual task as a platform for experiments as well as control functions for the entire space station; it also serves as a storage room for spare parts - around 60-70% of the devices in the space station can be repaired in orbit - and consumables (Food, diapers, etc.) and as a shelter in an emergency. The Wentian science module has its own mechanical arm on the outside of its middle section, in order to be able to move the containers attached there for experiments in a vacuum, as well as an air lock for spacecraft operations. In this module primarily space science experiments and the testing of industrial technologies are carried out.

Science module Mengtian

The Mengtian science module

The Mengtian science module, which also weighs 22 t, also has devices for accommodating scientific payloads, both inside and outside of the module, as well as an airlock for passing through payload containers and equipment that a spaceman receives on the outside. Behind the connecting door to the central lock section, in the Mengtian science module, there is initially a work cabin, followed by a multi-purpose test section. Inside there is space for 13 payloads, both in individual containers and in entire control cabinets. In addition, in the I. and III. In the quadrant of the outer shell, i.e. on the side facing the earth and the side pointing in the opposite direction, large flaps are opened, on the inside of which up to eight payloads mounted there can be exposed to space, in the space under the flap another eight. Together with the payloads permanently mounted on the outside, 37 experiments can be carried out in a vacuum.

Payloads and international cooperation

The center for projects and technologies for the use of space of the Chinese Academy of Sciences is responsible for the construction, testing and maintenance of the payloads on the space station . In addition, there are also direct collaborations with research institutions. For example, the Agricultural University of Yunnan is interested in the cultivation of crops suitable for the high mountains and has been working with the manned space program in this area since the Shenzhou-9 mission . By exposing plant seeds to space conditions and then propagating them on earth, it was possible to obtain a large number of useful variations in pu-erh tea, etc. On July 23, 2014, the Yunnan Provincial Government and the Manned Space Agency signed a framework agreement for strategic cooperation that secured a place for these experiments on the space station and regulated technical cooperation. This framework agreement was expanded in September 2017 and December 2020, so that it is now possible, for example, for Yunnan companies to advertise with the term “space-grade food” (航天 级 食品).

In addition, since 2017 there have been increasing requests from abroad to be able to continue living and working in the near-earth region after the foreseeable end of the International Space Station ISS on the Chinese space station. For example, on February 22nd, 2017, during the visit of President Sergio Mattarella to Beijing, the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana signed a bilateral agreement with the Bureau for Manned Spaceflight, which deals with cooperation in the field of space medicine during long stays in space as well as scientific Payloads went. At the time, this was in connection with Xi Jinping's invitation to Mattarella to join the New Silk Road , which Italy then did. There has also been a collaboration with the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission of Pakistan since 2019 . Hao Chun, the director of the Manned Space Bureau, confirmed on June 10, 2021 that foreign astronauts were already learning Chinese and preparing to take part in Chinese missions. However, it is not intended that non-Chinese spaceships will visit the station. Instead, foreign spacemen have to travel by Chinese spaceships. As of June 2021, it is planned that foreigners will live and work together with Chinese space travelers on the space station from the completion of the station, i.e. from 2023. In addition to Italy and Pakistan, France and Russia were also specifically named.

As early as June 2016, the Office for Human Spaceflight, as the representative of the Chinese government, concluded an agreement with the United Nations Office for Space Issues that China would make the space station available to all members of the United Nations, especially developing countries, for scientific experiments, including foreign ones Would accommodate spacemen. For this purpose, the main manned space department of the Chinese Academy of Space Technology, in cooperation with the Chinese Academy of Sciences, developed standardized interfaces for power supply and temperature control of the payloads as well as standard dimensions for their containers and the attachment nozzles on their outer wall so that they can be accessed by the mechanical arm of the science module Wentian could be moved.

The Russian state space organization Roskosmos was interested in participating in the construction and supply of the Chinese space station; however, this cooperation sought by Russia did not materialize.

Space medicine

During the construction phase of the space station, the focus of the experiments is on space medicine. The Chinese spaceman training center is in charge of this.At the end of 2017, it contacted a good 200 experts from over 50 Chinese research institutions and worked with them to define five research areas:

• The influence of weightlessness on the health of space travelers during long stays in space and technical possibilities to protect them from this.

Daoyin exercises (representation from the Western Han Dynasty )

• The influence of cosmic rays on the health of space travelers during long stays in space and technical possibilities to protect them from this. Above all, the radiation dose in organs sensitive to radiation is to be measured in order to determine the acceptable level and thus to obtain a basis for planning future missions to the moon and Mars.

• Changes in the behavior and abilities of space travelers during long stays in space, measurement and assessment of these, as well as technologies to adjust them. This is basic research aimed at developing human and machine interaction supported by artificial intelligence .

• Medical online monitoring in orbit over a longer period of time using sensors woven into clothing.

• Applying traditional Chinese medicine to space travel, with an emphasis on precautionary measures. Holistic approach with Daoyin breathing exercises (导引), meditation, yoga, massage and acupuncture - all methods that use few resources. Attempt to develop health suits that use woven electrodes to stimulate specific acupuncture points.

Subsequently, an “Expert Commission for Space Medicine Experiments” (航天 医学 实验 领域 专家 Experten) and within this commission, in turn, expert groups for the individual specialist areas (专业) were set up. On March 19, 2018, a competition was announced on the official website of the manned space program, which was aimed at all legal entities within China that are concerned with the area. By March 2019, 17 research institutes, 34 universities, 11 hospitals and 3 companies had submitted a total of 167 projects, initially by the respective expert group, then by the entire commission under aspects such as technical feasibility, innovation potential, economic and medical benefits for the general population, and ease of use and resource consumption (electricity, water, reagents to be supplied ) were checked. The experiments were then carried out in the laboratory and, if they proved successful, installed in containers suitable for the space station. The core module has its own control cabinet for space medicine experiments, radiation measuring devices built into the outer wall and a laboratory cabinet for analyzing body fluids and other biological samples.

So far there are no doctors among the members of the space corps. This means that the fighter pilots and engineers have to be trained by the spaceman training center to take blood samples, find acupuncture points, etc. The operators of the experiments not only demanded the simplest possible usability, but also detailed teaching material that should enable the astronauts to be able to repair the devices in an emergency. These experiments, which have to be carried out in addition to the physically demanding construction work at the station, the constant preoccupation with diseases, represent a burden for the space travelers. Several psychological experiments are planned, which it is hoped that they could reduce this burden.

Only Chinese operators were involved in the experiments selected through the competition for the construction phase of the station. In addition, however, the astronaut training center also contacted the Institute for Medical and Biological Problems (IMBP) in Russia, the CNES in France and the European Astronaut Center in the German Center for Aerospace in Cologne-Lind , plus with Researchers at numerous universities abroad worked on the topic and initiated cooperation projects for the operational phase of the space station from 2022. In addition to this collaboration with top researchers, actively initiated by China, the United Nations Office for Space Affairs invited “all countries, regardless of their size and level of development” to conduct their experiments on the station in May 2018 .

Most of the experiments selected by the Office for Manned Spaceflight and UNOOSA for the first regular shift in June 2019 focused on physics, for example a project to research gamma-ray bursts from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics and other institutes in Switzerland , Poland and China. In addition, a project of the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences of the Technical and Natural Sciences University of Norway and other institutes in the Netherlands and Belgium was selected, where the theory is to be tested that cosmic radiation promotes the growth of cancer cells, but weightlessness slows it down or slows it down stops.

Space debris hazard

The Center for Monitoring of Space Debris of the National Space Agency of China has been responsible for evaluating the threat posed by space debris to spacecraft , triggering a corresponding alarm and coordinating emergency measures . The center has its own database with the orbital data of each piece of debris. Practical supervision and the search for new debris has been entrusted to the National Astronomical Observatories of the Chinese Academy of Sciences . There, in turn, the observatory on the purple mountain in Nanjing is assigned to this task, which operates its own research center for the observation of targets and debris in space in cooperation with the Xi'an satellite control center. Connected to the research center are optical telescopes in the Nanjing branch offices in Honghe , Yao'an , Xuyi and Delhi as well as in the Nanshan branch of the Xinjiang Astronomical Observatory, the Yunnan Astronomical Observatory on Phoenix Mountain near Kunming and in Changchun .

The space station itself has a radar system that locates approaching objects, warns the crew and the Beijing space control center, and raises or lowers the orbit of the station by means of the main and control engines, possibly with the support of a space freighter docked at the stern, around the micrometeorite or debris to go the way. Depending on the danger situation and advance warning time, the space travelers go into the Shenzhou spacecraft, which is permanently docked at the bow of the station, or they take refuge in the Wentian science module, where there is a second “command bridge” for the space station. The sleeping cabins of the three space travelers (each has its own) are located in the corridor section of the Tianhe core module, in the immediate vicinity of the spherical lock section; the station is designed in such a way that the astronauts can leave a damaged section in a maximum of five minutes. From the Jiuquan Cosmodrome in the Gobi Desert, where there are 300 days of flight a year, the rescue spaceship, which is always on standby, can take off within a few days.

In addition, based on the experience with the Tiangong space laboratories, constructive measures for passive protection against space debris were also taken. One of the core systems in which the arrangement of components on the outside cannot be avoided is the cooling system. But here, too, the engineers in the main development department at the Chinese Academy for Space Technology (since 2020 "Major Projects Department") chose a concept where the two heat pipes that transport the cooling medium to the station's radiators only run to a very small extent on the outside which greatly reduces the likelihood of damage.

Mission List

This is the list of flights to the China Space Station (CSS). Modules are highlighted in brown , freighters are highlighted in blue , manned spaceships are highlighted in green . Flights without a COSPAR ID are planned.

	Spacecraft COSPAR-ID	Task / payload	carrier	Start ( UTC )	Launch site	Coupling (UTC)	lock	Decoupling (UTC)	Duration of the coupling (ddd: hh: mm)	Landing / Deorbit (UTC)
1	Tianhe 2021-035A	Core module	CZ-5B	April 29, 2021 3:23 AM	Wenchang 101	first CSS module	-	-	-	-
2	Tianzhou 2 2021-046A	Refueling / supplies	CZ-7	May 29, 2021 12:55 PM	Wenchang 102	May 29, 2021 9:01 PM	Rear
3	Shenzhou 12 2021-053A	Station review	CZ- 2F / G	June 17, 2021 1:22 AM	Jiuquan 91	June 17, 2021 7:54 am	Bow / front			September 2021
4th	Tianzhou 3	Supplies	CZ-7	September 2021	Wenchang 102		Rear
5	Shenzhou 13	Station review	CZ-2F / G	October 2021	Jiuquan 91		Bow / bottom			March 2022
6th	Tianzhou 4	Supplies	CZ-7	March / April 2022	Wenchang 102		Rear
7th	Shenzhou 14	Assembly of the science modules	CZ-2F / G	May 2022	Jiuquan 91		Bow / bottom			November 2022
8th	Wentian	Science module	CZ-5B	May / June 2022	Wenchang 101		Bow / port	-	-	-
9	Mengtian	Science module	CZ-5B	August / September 2022	Wenchang 101		Bow / starboard	-	-	-
10	Tianzhou 5	Supplies	CZ-7	October 2022	Wenchang 102		Rear
11	Shenzhou 15th	Payload monitoring	CZ-2F / G	November 2022	Jiuquan 91		Bow / front			May 2023

Private transportation services

After the planned commissioning of the space station at the end of 2022, crews will change every four to six months. In addition to passenger transport, around two to three supply flights per year are planned for this purpose. The Office of Human Spaceflight has with the space freighter Tianzhou and the spacecraft of the new generation in his freighter configuration providing required transport capacity. In order to also promote the private space industry, as planned in the 14th five-year plan (2021-2025), the office launched a public tender for transport services on January 5, 2021 . There are two categories:

1. Transport to orbit
   • Delivery quantity per flight 1–4 t (for comparison: Tianzhou can transport 6.5 t, the new generation spacecraft 4 t)
   • From leaving the factory to docking with the space station, a maximum of 45 days (the established spaceships alone need 2 months of preparation time on the cosmodrome)
   • Manual unloading by space travelers, possibility to take away waste, residue-free incineration when re-entering the atmosphere
   • Costs for a flight according to the international market
2. Transport to earth
   • Delivery quantity per flight 100–300 kg (the new generation spaceship can bring back up to 2.5 t to earth)
   • Low effort for path tracking, control and recovery, ability of the re-entry vehicle to communicate its position after landing via radio and optical signals

Appropriate concepts could be submitted by February 28, 2021. The agency for manned space travel now decides on the further procedure based on the aspects of innovation, feasibility and economic efficiency (in this order). Licensed space companies were able to find out about this and other planned programs as early as December 24, 2020.

literature

• The construction of the Chinese space station has started. In: FliegerRevue , No. 7/2021, pp. 40–45

Web links

Commons : Chinese Space Station  - Collection of Images and Videos

• Mission Report Index, with pictures and videos (Chinese)
• Manual for the payload boxes and cabinets available for customers (Chinese)

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b c d} 天和 号 空间站 核心 舱 发射 任务 圆满 成功 后 的 子系统 官 宣 整理. In: spaceflightfans.cn. April 29, 2021, accessed April 29, 2021 (Chinese). 
2. ↑ ^{a b c d} CSS (TIANHE-1) on N2YO.com, accessed May 18, 2021.
3. ↑ ^{a b} 毛 林 全 、 施 梨:关于 征集 “面向 空间站 运营 的 低成本 货物 运输” 方案 设想 的 公告. In: cmse.gov.cn. January 6, 2021, accessed January 6, 2021 (Chinese). 
4. ↑ 航天 面面观:中国 空间站 核心 舱 首次 整体 亮相 未来 我国 空间站 到底 什么 样？ 一探究竟！ In: zhuanlan.zhihu.com. April 10, 2018, accessed January 22, 2020 (Chinese). 
5. ^ Andrew Jones: China wants to launch its own Hubble-class telescope as part of space station. In: space.com. April 20, 2021, accessed May 31, 2021 (Chinese). 
6. ↑ 刘泽康:神舟 十二 号 载人 飞行 任务 新闻 发布会 召开. In: cmse.gov.cn. June 16, 2021, accessed June 16, 2021 (Chinese). 
7. ↑ 单身 狗 说 电 竞:天宫 空间站 方案 大变！ 时隔 10 年 官方 终于 改口 ， 航天 科技 再立新功. In: k.sina.com.cn. January 9, 2020, accessed January 22, 2020 (Chinese). 
8. ↑ 项 思 、 崔逸飞:中国 空间站 来啦！ 最新 研制 进展 官方 视频 重磅 亮相. In: m.news.cctv.com. April 23, 2019, accessed August 9, 2020 (Chinese). 
9. ↑ 中国 载人 航天 工程 简介. In: cmse.gov.cn. April 23, 2011, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
10. ↑ 权 娟 、 杨 媚:载人 航天 扬 国威 —— 访 中国 载人 航天 工程 总设计师 周建平. In: dangjian.people.com.cn. December 7, 2012, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
11. ↑ 黄国伟:载人 空间站 工程 专题 会议 召开. In: cmse.gov.cn. April 6, 2011, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
12. ↑ 牛 红光 赴 成都 指导 空间站 工程 相关 研制 工作. In: cmse.gov.cn. March 20, 2014, accessed January 28, 2020 (Chinese). 
13. ↑ 空间站 系统. In: cmse.gov.cn. April 3, 2019, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
14. ↑ 郑松:天宫 二号 总设计师 王翔 是 咱 二 师 二 十九 团 人. In: 360doc.com. December 15, 2017, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
15. ^ Morris Jones: Shenzhou for Dummies. In: spacedaily.com. November 18, 2011, accessed January 24, 2020 (Chinese). 
16. ↑ 孙晓锐:哈工大 为 “天宫 一号” 实现 交会 对接 精确 “导航”. In: heilongjiang.dbw.cn. September 29, 2011, accessed January 24, 2020 (Chinese). 
17. ↑ 刘 爽 、 田雅文 、 蒋立 正:载人 航天 空间 交会 对接 工程 荣获 国家 科技 进步 特等奖. In: cmse.gov.cn. January 10, 2014, accessed January 28, 2020 (Chinese). 
18. ↑ 周 雁:直面 关键 技术 自主 创新 打造 中国 空间站. In: cmse.gov.cn. April 3, 2019, accessed February 3, 2020 (Chinese). 
19. ↑ 张利文:我国 载人 空间站 工程 正式 启动 实施. In: cmse.gov.cn. October 27, 2010, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
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28. ↑ 印度 又有 大 动作 ， 载人 飞船 明年 发射 ， 不锈钢 火箭 真的 能行 吗？ In: new.qq.com. January 12, 2020, accessed January 29, 2020 (Chinese). 
29. ↑ 肖建军 、 杨 璐茜:空间站 首次 亮相！ 中国 “天和” 号 空间站 核心 舱 将 在 第十二届 珠海 航展 对 公众 开放. In: cmse.gov.cn. October 23, 2018, accessed February 1, 2020 (Chinese). 
30. ↑ 长征 五号 乙 遥 二 火箭 中国 空间站 核心 舱 天和 - 发射 任务 圆满 成功 ！！！ In: spaceflightfans.cn. April 29, 2021, accessed April 29, 2021 (Chinese). 
31. ↑ ^{a b} 庞丹:天和 核心 舱 完成 在 轨 测试 验证 ， 这项 “黑 科技” 你 一定 得 知道！ In: spaceflightfans.cn. May 18, 2021, accessed May 19, 2021 (Chinese). 
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36. ↑ 岳 靓:四位 航天 总 师 上 春晚 ， 《向 祖国 报告》 背后 有 哪些 故事？ In: spaceflightfans.cn. February 12, 2021, accessed March 5, 2021 (Chinese). 
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39. ↑ 直播 “天 舟” 已 就位 “太空 快递” 将 出发 直击 天 舟 二号 发射 现场 LIVE Tianzhou-2 on YouTube , May 19, 2021, accessed June 17, 2021.
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41. ↑ ^{a b} 张智慧:集 大众 智慧 于 探索 融 中华 文化 于 飞天. In: cmse.gov.cn. November 5, 2013, accessed May 4, 2021 (Chinese). 
42. ↑ 刘 爽:中国 载人 航天 工程 标识 及 空间站 名称 获奖 名称 揭晓. In: cmse.gov.cn. October 31, 2013, accessed January 28, 2020 (Chinese). 
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44. ↑ 空间站 征 名. In: cmse.gov.cn. Retrieved January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
45. ↑ 张智慧: “天 舟” 名称 诞生 始末. In: taikongmedia.com. April 17, 2017, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
46. ↑ 罗 竹 风 (主编):汉语大词典.第二 卷. 汉语大词典 出版社, 上海 1994 （第二 次 印刷）, p. 1420.
47. ↑ 罗 竹 风 (主编): Hanyu da cidian | 汉语大词典. 第十二 卷. 汉语大词典 出版社, 上海 1994 （第二 次 印刷）, p. 30.
48. ↑ 七律 （二 首） · 送 瘟神 （1958 年 7 月 1 日）. In: people.com.cn. Retrieved January 24, 2020 (Chinese). 
49. ↑ 张晓祺:中国 载人 航天 工程 标识 正式 公布. In: cpc.people.com.cn. November 1, 2013, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
50. ↑ 钟 在 天:中国 载人 航天 工程 标识 及 空间站 、 货运 飞船 名称 正式 公布. In: taikongmedia.com. November 1, 2013, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
51. ↑ 高 雷:习近平 引领 航天 梦 助推 中国 梦. In: cpc.people.com.cn/. September 15, 2016, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese). 
52. ↑ 中国 空间站 核心 舱 首次 整体 亮相 未来 我国 空间站 到底 什么 样？ 一探究竟！ In: zhuanlan.zhihu.com. December 25, 2020, accessed May 5, 2021 (Chinese). 
53. ↑ ^{a b} Selected Experiment Projects to be executed on board the CSS for the 1st Cycle. (PDF; 214 KB) In: unoosa.org. June 12, 2019, accessed May 5, 2021 . 
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55. ↑ 张智慧:集 大众 智慧 于 探索 融 中华 文化 于 飞天. In: cmse.gov.cn. November 5, 2013, accessed January 28, 2020 (Chinese). 
56. ↑ 空间站 工程 研制 进展. In: cmse.gov.cn. April 23, 2016, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese).  P. 12.
57. ↑ 郭佳子 、 董 能力 、 杨 璐茜:周建平 ： 走进 新 时代 的 中国 载人 航天 工程. In: cmse.gov.cn. April 24, 2018, accessed January 31, 2020 (Chinese). 
58. ↑ 空间站 工程 研制 进展. In: cmse.gov.cn. April 23, 2016, accessed January 23, 2020 (Chinese).  P. 13ff.
59. ↑ 张智慧 、 袁永刚:太空 生物 科技 产业 将 纳入 中国 空间站 应用 工程 范畴. In: cmse.gov.cn. September 26, 2014, accessed January 28, 2020 (Chinese). 
60. ↑ 马波:云南 ： 借力 航天 科技 促 生物 产业 “腾飞”. In: scitech.people.com.cn. November 1, 2013, accessed January 28, 2020 (Chinese). 
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62. ↑ 逯 耀 锋:中国 载人 航天 工程 办公室 与 云南省 人民政府 续签 战略 合作 框架 协议. In: cmse.gov.cn. December 24, 2020, accessed December 30, 2020 (Chinese). 
63. ↑ 杨 璐茜:张育林 ： 空间站 奠基 战 打响 ， 2019 年 拟 发射 核心 舱. In: cmse.gov.cn. April 26, 2017, Retrieved January 29, 2020 (Chinese). 
64. ↑ China and Italy promise stronger relations. In: german.xinhuanet.com. February 23, 2017, accessed January 29, 2020 . 
65. ↑ Jörg Seisselberg: Italy's controversial pact with Beijing. In: tagesschau.de. March 26, 2019, accessed January 29, 2020 . 
66. ↑ Foreign astronauts on board the China Space Station (from 0:00:43) on YouTube , June 10, 2021, accessed on June 12, 2021.
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69. ↑ 周 雁:全国 载人 航天 标准化 技术 委员会 2020 年年 会 暨 载人 航天 工程 标准化 工作 会 在 京 顺利 召开. In: cmse.gov.cn. December 18, 2020, accessed December 30, 2020 (Chinese). 
70. ↑ Anatoly Zak: Russian human space flight in the 2010s . Russian Space Web, April 28, 2021: "... as US-Russian relations continued to deteriorate at the end of 2017 and the beginning of 2018, Roskosmos began considering alternative scenarios to cooperation with the US, including the possibility of joining a Chinese space station slated for orbital assembly during the 2020s. "(Access only for chargeable registered users)
71. ↑ Twitter message from Anatoly Zak, April 28, 2021.
72. ↑ 李莹辉:中国 空间站 航天 医学 实验 领域 第 一批 项目 指南 问答. In: cmse.gov.cn. March 1, 2019, accessed February 1, 2020 (Chinese). 
73. ↑ Eric Berger: China just invited the world to its space station. In: cmse.gov.cn. May 29, 2018, accessed February 2, 2020 . 
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