Delaware
Delaware languages or Lenape is one or - depending on the rating - two closely related Algonquian languages spoken by the ethnic groups of the Unami and Munsee in the group of the Lenni Lenape originally in the area of the Delaware River to today's cities Philadelphia and New York , with the expulsion of the spokesman westward scattered states of the Midwest of the United States and finally in Oklahoma (USA) and in Ontario ( Canada ). Some Munsee speakers still live in Moraviantown, Ontario, while the last native Unami speaker died in Oklahoma in 2002. There is an effort in both Lenape groups to make children fluent speakers again.
Subdivision and self-designation
Munsee and Unami are very close and have therefore been treated as dialects of the " Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians ", especially in the past , as was the case by the Moravian missionary David Zeisberger , who in his grammar does not even mention the names of the "dialects" belonging to them when describing varying grammatical structures. Since the dialects, despite their similarity, differ significantly in their syntax, phonology and vocabulary and speakers of both dialects find them difficult or difficult to understand, they have recently been treated as separate languages.
The speakers of both Delawar languages call themselves Lenni Lenape , "true people", or simply Lenape, "people". In Unami this is pronounced / lənáːpe / and Lënape is written, in Munsee / lənáːpeːw / is spoken and Lunaapeew is written. A self-designation of the language in Munsee is Huluníixsuwaakan / hə̀lə̆ni · xsəwá · kan / and in Unami Lënapei èlixsuwakàn / ləná · pe èli · xsuwá · kan / . Language in general is called Lixsëwakàn / ̀li · xsuwá · kan / .
While Lenape is the name of the speaker and can also be used in English to refer to all variants of the language, the language name Lenape is sometimes only related to the Unami, whereas Delaware denotes both dialects or languages. The term Lunaapeew is also used by the Munsee as a language term in the English-speaking context.
The exonym Delaware comes from the English settlers who first named the Delaware River after the Baron Lord De La Warr , governor of the Jamestown colony (Virginia) , and then named the indigenous people who lived there. This name was retained even after the Lenni Lenape did not live there for a long time, and still denotes their languages to this day.
Differentiation from other Algonquin languages
In contrast to the neighboring southern New England Algonquian languages, the original Eastern Algonquian * r assumed in the Lenape is realized as l , in historical times even as r , so that one speaks of "R dialects" or "L dialects", while in the neighborhood "N-dialects" and "Y dialects" [ j ] place. The word for human is accordingly in Unami lënu , in Munsee lunuw , in the Delaware-Pidgin of the 17th century rhenus , in the "Y-dialects" Pequot-Mohegan [y] in and Plains-Cree iyiniw , in the "N dialect" Narragansett on the other hand nnin , in Ojibwe inini . Assumed Ur-Eastern Algonquin * θ is realized as x , while s occurs instead for the eastern neighbors . For example, “it's red” is used on Unami màxke and on Munsee maxkeew , whereas in neighboring Pequot-Mohegan it means musqáyuw ; In Delawar , woman is called xkwe or oxkweew , in Pequot-Mohegan on the other hand it is sqá and in Narragansett it is squàws .
Historical language area
The Lenni Lenape were one of the first ethnic groups in North America to come into contact with the Europeans in the early 17th century, namely with the Swedes and the Dutch . At that time they lived in the region around the lower Hudson River and the Delaware River . Munsee was spoken on western Long Island , on the lower Hudson in the area of the city of New York , adjacent areas of the state of New York and also on the Delaware in northern New Jersey . The language area of the Unami was south of it in southern New Jersey as well as in neighboring areas in Pennsylvania and Delaware .
As early as the 19th century, most of Ontario's Munsee speakers lived in Moraviantown , Munceytown, and Six Nations , where their descendants still live today. Only in Moraviantown are some elderly people who speak Delaware as their mother tongue. The descendants of the Unami-speaking population can now be found predominantly around Anadarko and Bartlesville in Oklahoma, where the last fluent speaker Edward Thompson from Bartlesville died on August 31, 2002. His sister Nora Thompson Dean (1907–1984) played a central role in documenting the language.
Linguistic monuments
Most of the Delawarian texts date from the time of the mission by the Moravian Brethren to the Munsee in Pennsylvania and Ohio in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and they are translations of extracts from the Bible, Christian songs and other Christian texts . Among other things, a translation of a harmony of the four Gospels (story of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ) by Samuel Lieberkühn by David Zeisberger (Elekup Nihillalquonk woak Pemauchsohalquonk Jesus Christ) , translations of stories from the Old and New Testaments by Abraham Luckenbach , a translation of the three epistles of John by CF Dencke as well as Christian hymns also translated by David Zeisberger. David Zeisberger also wrote a dictionary and a grammar in German for his fellow missionaries, which were kept as manuscripts in the Moravian Library in Bethlehem (Pennsylvania) and only published posthumously as books in English translation.
As early as the 17th century, Johannes Campanius wrote a translation of Martin Luther's Small Catechism into what he called the "American-Virginia language" in New Sweden (published posthumously in 1696), which was Delaware-Pidgin .
An important document in the Lenape language of the Unami is the Walam Olum published by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque , which describes the origin of the world and the Lenni Lenape. The authenticity of this document is, however, repeatedly questioned.
Due to the activities of Nora Thompson Dean in Oklahoma, some stories on Unami are also documented as sound recordings. Recently, Lenape legends have also been translated from English into Unami-Lenape.
Phonology
Consonants
The Delaware has the following consonants:
| labial | Dental | Postalveolar | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p [ p ] | t [ t ] | č [ tʃ ] | k [ k ] | |
| Fricative | s [ s ] | š [ ʃ ] | x [ x ] | h [ h ] | |
| nasal | m [ m ] | n [ n ] | |||
| Lateral | l [ l ] | ||||
| Half vowel | w [ w ] | y [ j ] |
Vowels
The Munsee has four long vowels and five short ones, whereby the middle central vowel ( Schwa ) is always short:
| Before the | Central | Behind | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Closed | [iː] ,[ i ] | [oː] ,[ o ] | |
| medium | [eː] ,[ e ] | [ ə ] | |
| Open | [aː] ,[ a ] |
The Unami has six long and six short vowels, so the middle central vowel ( Schwa ) can also be long:
| Before the | Central | Behind | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Closed | [iː] ,[ i ] | [uː] ,[ o ] | |
| medium | [eː] ,[ e ] | [əː] ,[ ə ] | [ɔː] ,[ ɔ ] |
| Open | [aː] ,[ a ] |
Spelling systems
Various systems have been used to write down the Delawar languages. Historically of greatest importance is the German spelling- based system of the Moravian missionary David Zeisberger , which he used for his books with the Christian Munsee . Even today, these books make up a large part of the extant Delawar text corpus .
In their publications, linguists use a phonemic script for the Algonquian languages , the characters of which are partly taken from the International Phonetic Alphabet , but partly also from the Latin alphabets of the Slavic languages.
Today the Unami of Oklahoma and the Munsee of Ontario use different spelling systems. The differences can be seen in the following table with words from both dialects.
vocabulary
The following table shows the differences in pronunciation and spelling of Unami and Munsee, as well as the traditional spelling of the Delawarian of the missionary times of the 18th and 19th centuries and the Delaware-Pidgin of the 17th century, in which r is still used instead of l .
| German | Unami Delaware | Unami (phonemic) | Munsee Delaware | Munsee (phonemic) | Zeisberger , Heckewelder , Ettwein (18/19. C.) | Campanius (Pidgin 17th century) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| one | kwëti | kwə́t · i | ngwuti | nkwə́ti | ngutti | ciútte |
| two | nisha | ní · š · a | niisha | ní · ša | nisha | nissa |
| three | naxa | naxá | nxaa | nxá | after a | náha |
| four | newa | né · wa | neewa | né · wa | newo | næwo |
| five | palenàxk | palé naxk | naalan | ná · lan | palenach | pareenach |
| six | kwëtash | kwə́t · a · š | nkwutash | nkwə́ta · š | guttash | ciuttas |
| seven | nishash | ní · š · a · š | niishash | ní · ša · š | nischasch | nissas |
| eight | xash | xá · š | xaash | (n) xá · š | chaasch | haas |
| nine | pèshkunk | pé · škunk | nooli | nó li | peschgonk | paéschun |
| ten | tèlën | télən | wiimpat | wímpat | place | thæræn |
| woman | xkwe | xkwé | oxkweew | oxkwé w | ochqueu | ãquæo |
| man | lënu | lə́nu | lunuw | lə́nəw | lenno | rhenus |
| Man, Lenape | lënape | ləná · pe · | lunaapeew | ləná · pe · w | lenape | renappi |
| Lenape woman | lënapèxkwe | lə́napé xkwe | lunaapeexkwe | lə́na · pé · xkwe | ||
| my mother | nkahès | nkáhes | nguk | nkuk | gahowes, guka (mother) | kahæss (mother) |
| my father! | nuxa | núx · a | noxwe | nóxwe | nocha, still | nῶk |
| dog | mwekane |
mwé kane |
mwaakaneew |
mwá kane w |
allum moekaneu |
arúm |
| pig | kwëshkwësh, kwëshkwëtët |
kwə́škwəš, kwəshkwə́tət |
kooshkoosh |
kó · ško · š |
goschgosch |
kwskus |
| beaver | tëmakwe |
təmá kwe |
amoxkw |
amóxkw |
ktemaque, amochk |
tamaque |
| bear | màxkw | máxkw | maxkw | máxkw | machque | mackh |
| it is red | màxke | máxke | maxkeew | máxke w | machkeu | mæckhhchæck |
| it is blue | aone | á · one · | oolihkeew | ó lihke w | schiwa'pew, wulih'ke | |
| it's gray / brown | wipunkwe | wi púnkwe | wiipongweew | wi · ponkwe · w | wipunxit | |
| it is white | ope | ó · pe · | waapeew | wá · pe · w | wapaleechen | wópe, wopæak |
| it is black | sëke | sə́ke · | nzukeew | nsə́ke · w | sukeu | |
| it is green | àskàskwe | askáskwe | askaskweew | askáskwe w | asgask, askasqueu | |
| it is good | wëlët | wələ́t | angry | wələ́t | wulit | oret |
| Wapiti ( elk ) elk ( moose ) |
mus pàkakwënèt |
mu · s Paka · kwənet |
moss |
mo · s |
mos |
|
| deer | ahtuhw | ahtúhw | atoh | atóh | careful | hardῶ |
| squirrel | xanikw |
xaní kw |
psakwulunyeev |
psakwələ́nje · w |
haniqus, anicus |
|
| wolf | tëme |
tə́me |
wiixcheew |
wí xče w |
timmeu ("out of date"), how shy |
tymmæ |
| racoon | nahënëm |
náhənəm |
eespun |
é · spən |
nachenum espan |
nahanum (Swedish: asspann) |
| Gray fox | òkwës | ókwəs | woakus | hóckus | ||
| Black fox | wëlalëwes | wəláləwe · s | xwaaluwees | xwa · lə́we · s | wulalowe | |
| Snake | xkuk | xkó k | axkook | áxko · k | achgook | hokook |
| frog | chahkol | čáhkol | chkwal | čkwál | tsquall | |
| turtle | tahkox | táhkox | takwax | tákwax | tachquoch | |
| Turkey | chikënëm |
čí · kənəm |
puleew |
pəlé w |
bloeu, ploeu, tschikenum ("arch.") |
síckenem |
| tree | hìtkuk |
hítku · k |
míhtukw |
míhtukw |
hittuk, mehittuk |
hættog |
| Corn | xàskwim | xáskwi m | xwaskwiim | xwáskwi m | chasquem | |
| pumpkin | kèskùnthàkw |
keskúnthakw |
mahkahkw |
máhkahkw |
machoachk, geskundliak ("out of date") |
|
| ghost | manëtu | mánət · u | manutoo | mánət o | manitto | |
| devil | mahtan'tu | mahtán'tu | mahtan'toow | mătán'to w | machtando | |
| House | wikëwam | wí · kəwam | wiikwahm | wí · kwahm | wikwam | wickῶmen |
| shoe | haksën, chipàkw |
háksən, čí pa kw |
mahksun |
máhksən |
power it up, power chipak, [schwonnachqu] ax |
síppack |
| knife | kshikàn |
kší · kan |
paxkshiikan |
paxkší · kan |
pachkschikan, kschikan |
paxíckan |
| water | mpi | mpi | mbuy | mpí | mbi | bij |
| snow | kun | ku · n | koon | ko · n | guhn | kuun |
| hand | ëlënch |
ə́lənč |
naxk |
náxk |
nachk |
after, ãlænskan, laénskan |
| heart | tèh | té · h | deeh | té · h | wdee | chitto, kitte |
| it / she eats | mitsu | mí · tsu | miichuw | mí · čuw | mizin (to eat) | |
| it is cold | thè | thé | theew | thé w | deu | thæwo |
| winter | luwàn | lú · wan | loowan | ló · wan | lowan | rhoongor |
Use in American literature
James Fenimore Cooper uses the name Chingachgook for one of his heroes in the Leatherstocking novel cycle . This name with the meaning "large snake" appears in this form as a word example in a list of large living beings in a correspondence of the Moravian missionary John Heckewelder at the Munsee about indigenous languages. Since the Delawar spelling of the Moravians was based on German , the Delawar word / xiŋɡaxˈgoːk / chingachgook was written and pronounced as in German ( ch at the beginning and in the middle as “ Ach-Laut ” / x /, formed from chingue “large” and achgook "snake"). In the Unami language of the 20th century, “big snake” means xinkwi xkuk / xiŋɡwixˈkuːk /. Cooper apparently adopted the name without knowing how it was pronounced. Since then, the character's name has been spoken contrary to the correct pronunciation / tʃiŋɡatʃˈguːk /, and not only in English, but also in German and Russian, where the name is transcribed as Чингачгук . The name of his son Uncas , which has little in common with the historical Mohegan- Sachem Uncas , is taken from the Pequot-Mohegan , where wôks / wãks / "fox" means, while the corresponding Delawarian word woakus (historical) or òkwës / ˈokwəs / (Unami) is, in the language of the Mahican , with whom Cooper throws the Mohegan into a " Mohicans " pot , waugoos [us] . Chingachgook also found its way into a DEFA feature film from 1967, Chingachgook, the great snake , in the original German version of which the two ch are spoken differently, namely / tʃiŋɡaxˈgoːk /.
Delaware literature
Christian texts
- Abraham Luckenbach, Samuel Lieberkühn: Scripture narratives from the New Testament in the Delaware language. 1801 ~ 1806. 158 pages.
- Nek Nechenenawachgissitschik Bambilak naga Geschiechauchsitpanna Johannessa Elekhangup. The three epistles of the Apostle John . Translated into Delaware Indian, by CF Dencke. Daniel Fanshaw, New York 1818. Google Books .
-
Elekup Nihillalquonk woak Pemauchsohalquonk Jesus Christ. The history of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ: comprehending all that the four evangelists have recorded concerning him: all their relations being brought together in one narration, so that no circumstance is omitted, but that inestimable history is continued in one series, in the very words of scripture. Translated into Delaware by David Zeisberger. Daniel Fanshaw, New York 1821. Online at archive.org .
- Translation of the work of Samuel Lieberkühn : The story of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ drawn from the four evangelists. Published and to be found in the bookstore of the Evangelical Brethren, by CE Senft. Gnadau 1820. Online at archive.org .
- Newinachke & guttasch pipinasiki gisehekhasiki elekpanni turnasiki ontschi mechoweki nachgundowoagani bambil. Forty-six select scripture narratives from the Old Testament, embellished with engravings, for the use of Indian youth. Translated by Abraham Luckenbach. Daniel Fanshaw, New York 1838. Online at archive.org .
- Abraham Luckenbach (Ed.): A collection of hymns for the use of the Delaware Christian Indians of the missions of the United Brethren of North America. Translated by David Zeisberger. J. & W. Held, Bethlehem 1847. Online at archive.org .
- Martin Luther (author), Johannes Campanius Holmiensis (author and translator): Lutheri Catechism. Öfwersatt på American-Virginiske Språket . Tryckt vthi thet af Kongl. Maytt. privilege. Burchardi Tryckeri, af JJ Genath, f. Stockholm 1696. Online at archive.org .
Others
- Constantine Samuel Rafinesque: The Walam Olum, or Red Score, of the Lenâpé. In: Daniel Garrison Brinton: The Lenâpé and their legends. DG Brinton, Philadelphia 1885. pp. 169-217 .
Literature on the Delaware
- Daniel Garrison Brinton : The Lenâpé and their legends: with the complete text and symbols of the Walam olum, a new translation, and an inquiry into its authenticity. DG Brinton, Philadelphia 1885. Online at archive.org . Chapter VII. The Walam Olum: is origin, authenticity and contents. Pp. 148-168 . The Walam Olum, or Red Score, of the Lenâpé. Pp. 169-217 .
- Daniel Garrison Brinton, Albert Seqaqkind Anthony (Ed.): A Lenâpé-English dictionary. From an anonymous ms. in the archives of the Moravian Church at Bethlehem. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia 1888. (Dictionary is essentially based on texts by David Zeisberger, Johann Heckewelder and Johann Ettwein.) Online at archive.org , on gilwell.com
- Lunaapeew Dictionary. Delaware Nation Council, Moraviantown 1992
- Ives Goddard: The Delaware Language, Past and Present. In: Herbert C. Kraft (Ed.). A Delaware Indian Symposium, pp. 103-110. Anthropological Series No. 4. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg 1974.
- Ives Goddard: Comparative Algonquian. In: Lyle Campbell , Marianne Mithun (eds.): The languages of Native America , pp. 70-132. University of Texas Press, Austin 1979.
- Ives Goddard: Delaware. In: Bruce Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians , Volume 15. Northeast , pp. 213-239. The Smithsonian Institution, Washington 1978.
- Ives Goddard: Pidgin Delaware. In: Sarah G. Thomason (Ed.): Contact Languages: A Wider Perspective , pp. 43-98. John Benjamin Publishing Company, Amsterdam 1997.
- Bartosz Hlebowicz: Why Care about Lënapei lixsëwakàn? Ethnography of the Lenape Language Loss . Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 11 (1), 2012, pp. 142–163.
- Eben Norton Horsford (Ed.): Zeisberger's Indian dictionary - English, German, Iroquois - the Onondaga and Algonquin - the Delaware. John Wilson & Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1887. Online at archive.org .
- James Hammond Trumbull : Notes on Forty Versions of the Lord's Prayer in Algonkin Languages . Transactions of the American Philological Association January 3, 1872. pp. 157-160. 16. Delaware: Renapi, of New Sweden . Pp. 161-168. 17. Delaware: Lenni Lenape of Northern Pennsylvania .
- David Zeisberger : Grammar of the language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. Translated from the German manuscript of the author by Peter Stephen du Ponceau. With a preface and notes by the translator. The Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. James Kay Jr., Philadelphia 1827. Online at archive.org .
Web links
Grammars and dictionaries
- Delaware Tribe of Indians (Lenape) - Lenape Talking Dictionary (Unami dictionary)
- Gilwell.com, The Lenape / English Dictionary (Daniel G. Brinton, Albert Seqaqkind Anthony (Ed.): A Lenâpé-English dictionary)
- Lunaapeew - Delaware Nation - Lunaapeew Language - Lenape - Moraviantown, Ontario ( Memento from January 13, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) ( mirror site, but without sound files )
- Ministry of Education: The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 1 to 12. Resource Guide Native Languages, A Support Document for the Teaching of Language Patterns - official curriculum in Canada for Delaware (Munsee)
- Munsee Delaware Grammar
Texts
- Delaware Tribe of Indians (Lenape) - Lenape Talking Dictionary: Lenape Stories
- Chief Robert Red Hawk Ruth, Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania: Stories of the Lenape People, with translations in the Lenape language (PDF; 922 kB).
- Sacred Texts, The Walam Olum: Index
- The Walam Olum
Individual evidence
- ^ David Zeisberger : Grammar of the language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians , Ed. Peter Stephen du Ponceau, New York 1827. pp. 36 , 57 .
- ↑ Goddard, Ives, 1979, p. v
- ↑ Delaware Tribe of Indians, Lenape Talking Dictionary: Lënape ( Memento of the original from October 19, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Lunaapeew - Delaware Nation - Lunaapeew Language - Lenape - Moraviantown, Ontario ( Memento of 13 January 2014 Internet Archive )
- ↑ Delaware Tribe of Indians, Lenape Talking Dictionary: Lënapei lixsëwakàn ( Memento of the original from October 19, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ See Herbert Kraft: The Lenape: Archeology, History, and Ethnography. New Jersey Historical Society, Newark 1986. pp. Xviii and Herbert Kraft: Settlement Patterns in the Upper Delaware Valley. In: Jay F. Custer (Ed.): Late Woodland Cultures of the Middle Atlantic Region, pp. 102-115. University of Delaware Press Newark 1986. p. 106.
- ↑ See Marianne Mithun: The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge Language Family Surveys. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (Massachusetts) 1999. p. 327 ("Munsee = Delaware: Munsee, Wappinger. Unami = Delaware = Lenape: Northern, Southern, Ulachtigo") and 331.
- ↑ Lenape.ca - The Delaware Nation Language, Cultural & Historical Department ( Memento January 13, 2014 in the Internet Archive ). Our Departments vision: To ensure Lunaapeew Language transmission for future generations.
- ↑ a b c d Mohegan Language: Mohegan English Dictionary ( Memento of the original from December 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 1.8 MB)
- ↑ Nehiyaw Masinahikan / Online Cree Dictionary : iyiniw ᐃᔨᓂᐤ NA First Nations person, Indian; person, man (CW); iyiniw ᐃᔨᓂᐤ NA person or native of a tribe / nation. Eg An Indian. (MD)
- ^ A b Roger Williams : A Key into the Language of America: or, An help to the Language of the Natives in that part of America, called New-England . Gregory Dexter, London 1643: Nnin, nninuog - Man, men. Squàws-suck - Woman, women , p. 27 .
- ↑ Anishinaabemowin: Ojibwe-English Wordlist : inini (wag) - man [iníni] .
- ^ A b Marianne Mithun: The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge Language Family Surveys. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (Massachusetts) 1999. p. 331.
- ^ Steve Chambers: The vanishing voice of the Lenape . Star ledger. November 17, 2002.
- ^ Chief Robert Red Hawk Ruth, Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania: Stories of the Lenape People, with translations in the Lenape language (PDF; 922 kB).
- ^ Willard B. Walker: Native Writing Systems . In: Handbook of North American Indians , vol. 17 (Ives Goddard, ed.). Washington, DC 1997: The Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ I. Goddard: Unhistorical features of Delaware. In: J. Fisiak (Ed.): Historical Linguistics and Philology: Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs [TILSM] . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1990. Volume 46, pp. 227-244.
- ^ Ives Goddard, 1979
- ↑ Delaware Tribe of Indians (Lenape) - Lenape Talking Dictionary (Unami dictionary online)
- ↑ Lunaapeew Dictionary. Delaware Nation Council, Moraviantown 1992. See also Lunaapeew / Delaware Nation (Ontario) ( January 13, 2014 memento in the Internet Archive ), Ontario Curriculum, and Munsee Delaware Grammar .
- ^ Daniel G. Brinton, Albert Seqaqkind Anthony (ed.): A Lenâpé-English dictionary , 1888, based on the texts by David Zeisberger, Johann Heckewelder and Johann Ettwein.
- ^ Martin Luther (author), Johannes Campanius Holmiensis (author and translator): Lutheri Catechismus. Öfwersatt på American-Virginiske Språket . Tryckt vthi thet af Kongl. Maytt. privilege. Burchardi Tryckeri, af JJ Genath, f. Stockholm 1696.
- ↑ John Heckewelder, Letter XXVI from Mr. Heckewelder, Bethlehem, October 10th , 1816. In: John Gottlieb Ernestus Heckewelder, History, manners, and customs of the Indian nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighboring states . By the Rev. John Heckewelder, of Bethlehem, Pa. New and Revised Edition. With an Introduction and Notes by the Rev. William C. Reichel, of Bethlehem, Pa. Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1881. Part II. A Correspondence between the Rev. John Heckewelder of Bethlehem, and Peter S. Duponceau, Esq., Corresponding secretary of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, respecting the Languages of the American Indians. (pp. 349-433), p. 431, Chingachgook, a large snake .
- ↑ Delaware Tribe od Indians, Lenape Talking Dictionary: English: big snake, Lenape: xinkwi xkuk ( Memento of the original dated December 2, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .
- ↑ William A. Starna (1979), Cooper's Indians: A Critique (SUNY Oneonta) . Presented at the 2nd Cooper Seminar, James Fenimore Cooper: His Country and His Art at the State University of New York College at Oneonta, July, 1979. Originally published in: James Fenimore Cooper: His Country and His Art, Papers from the 1979 Conference at State University College of New York, Oneonta and Cooperstown. George A. Test, editor. (pp. 63-76). Cooper took the term directly from Heckewelder. However, it has been pronounced incorrectly since its appearance in Cooper's works. It is pronounced properly "chingachgook," the ch- in initial position resembling a gutteral "h" ("hung '"). Heckewelder, a German, rendered the spelling as Cooper wrote it, but the pronunciation would be as in Heckewelder's native language.
- ^ Stephanie Fielding: Mohegan A Modern Mohegan Dictionary. Prepared for the Council of Elders . Mohegan Language Project, 2006.
- ↑ Delaware Tribe od Indians, Lenape Talking Dictionary: English: fox, Lenape: òkwës ( Memento of the original from January 2, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .
- ^ Mohican Dictionary. Compiled by Lion G. Miles (based chiefly on sources from the years 1740 to 1830) ( Memento of the original from January 14, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Mohican Nation. Stockbridge-Munsee Community, Band of Mohican Indians, 2010. FOX - WAUGOOSUS = diminutive (metoxene). WANK-SWISS (Jefferson).
