The watered gardener

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Movie
German title The watered gardener
Original title L'Arroseur arrosé
Country of production France
Publishing year 1895
length 1 minute
Rod
Director Louis Lumière
production Louis Lumière
camera Louis Lumière
occupation
  • François Clerc: The gardener
  • Benoît Duval: The boy

The watered gardener (also known as The watered lawn sprinkler ; original French title: L'Arroseur arrosé ) is a French short film from 1895. It is one of the ten films by the film pioneers Auguste and Louis Lumière , which at the first public presentation of their cinématographe on 28 December 1895 in the Paris Salon India du Grand Café .

The 50-second long strip is considered the first staged feature film in history; the plot, based on visual humor, anticipated the development of slapstick comedy , but also introduced the element of suspense in the new medium of film. The watered gardener was often copied in the early years of film history , and the film was also the model for a large number of works with similar gags . Today, The Watered Gardener is one of the most famous works in early film history, even if the film adaptation of a fictional material was long considered untypical for the work of the Lumière brothers.

action

A gardener waters garden beds with a water hose. Unnoticed by him, a boy creeps up and steps on the hose. When the water supply dried up, the gardener inspected the hose. At that moment the boy lifts his foot, the water flows again and the gardener is hit in the face by the gush of water. Laughing, the boy tries to run away, but the gardener catches up with him, leads him back to the scene and spanks his bum.

History of origin

Louis (right) and Auguste Lumière, 1895

Louis and Auguste Lumière, who with their Société Lumière were among the leading producers of photographic plates , had applied for a patent on February 13, 1895 after several months of development work for the cinématograph, an apparatus that could be used as a film camera , copier and film projector. They presented their invention for the first time on March 22, 1895 in Paris to the Société d'Encouragement à l'Industrie Nationale . For the screening, they produced the almost one-minute film Workers Leave the Lumière Works , which caused a sensation among the specialist audience. With their invention, the Lumière brothers competed with Thomas Alva Edison , in whose laboratories a film camera was developed as early as 1891 with the kinetograph and who had been producing commercially films for the kinetoscope , an image viewing device , since 1893 .

While Edison had his films shot in a specially built film studio , the Black Maria , the Lumière brothers, as passionate photographers, preferred working outdoors. In response to the first successful presentation of the Cinématographe, the Lumières made further films in their hometown of Lyon and in the southern French port of La Ciotat in the spring and summer of 1895 . With their recordings of just 50 seconds , they documented scenes from the world of work, but also everyday things such as feeding a toddler ( baby's breakfast ) . The running time of the films corresponded to the maximum length of the film strips of 17 meters that could be inserted into the cinematograph.

Herman Vogel's picture story L'Arroseur is considered a literary model for The Watered Gardener (excerpt)

The strip The Watered Gardener , recorded in spring 1895, occupies a special position among the first films by the Lumière brothers. In contrast to the documentary recordings (which were later referred to as actualités ), a plot was carefully staged in this film . According to his own account, Louis Lumière had recreated a trick with The Watered Gardener that his younger brother Edouard had played on a gardener when he was ten. A similarly structured story, however, has been described several times in comics . A popular picture story called L'Arroseur was drawn by Hermann Vogel in 1887 ; a comic, also visually very similar to the film, was published in 1889 by the French draftsman Christophe (Georges Colomb) under the title Histoire sans paroles - un Arroseur public .

The watered gardener was staged with François Clerc, the family gardener, and Benoît Duval, a joiner from the neighborhood. Edouard Lumière did not appear in front of the camera himself as he was considered too young for the job. The film was the Plages at La Ciotat in a single in the garden of lumièreschen country house in Clos setting added, which required by the performers, within the captured by the camera image field to move.

Performance history

Program of the first film screenings in the Salon India du Grand Café

The first screening of The Watered Gardener took place on June 10, 1895, when Louis and Auguste Lumière presented a selection of their films on a larger scale for the first time during a multi-day congress of the French Photographers Association in Lyon. In the following months, further private screenings of the Lumière films for members of photographic and scientific societies took place, including in Belgium for the first time in November 1895 . The watered gardener , at that time still announced under the title Le Jardinier (The Gardener), was one of the films presented at almost all performances. Reports on these events in the specialist journals aroused great interest in the cinematograph. In view of the numerous requests for further screenings, the Lumières decided to prepare a first commercial screening of their films.

Antoine Lumière , the father of Louis and Auguste, rented a basement room in the Grand Café on Paris' Place de l'Opéra and prepared an initial presentation there. The first performance took place on December 28, 1895 in front of theater operators and representatives of the press. Ten films were shown within a quarter of an hour; According to the traditional program, Le Jardinier was shown as the sixth film. A total of only 33 paying customers turned up on December 28th. In the following days, however, the number of interested parties rose continuously, so that in January 1896 up to 2,500 spectators attended the demonstrations every day. The entrance fee was 1 franc .

In parallel with the cinématographe, competing film projectors were developed in Germany, the United States and Great Britain, but thanks to the technical superiority and professional marketing of the cinématographe, the Lumières prevailed with their system and within a few months became the world's leading film producers. In 1896 the cinematograph was presented in numerous European countries, in North America, Mexico, North Africa, India, Japan and Australia. At the first screening of the cinématograph by Félicien Trewey in London on February 20, 1896, The Watering Gardener was one of the films shown under the English-language title Watering the Gardener , while the film was shown at the New York premiere on June 29, 1896 as The Gardener and the Bad Boy was announced. The watered gardener was also part of the film program at the first film screenings organized by Ludwig Stollwerck in Cologne in April 1896 .

The great demand for film copies meant that The Watered Gardener had to be re-recorded at least twice by 1897, as the original negatives wore out too quickly. In the catalogs of the Lumière brothers, in addition to the original title Le jardinier , the film was also listed as Le jardinier et le petit espiegle , Arroseur et arrosé and finally under the now common title L'Arroseur arrosé . The last catalog of the Société Lumière appeared in 1905, in which The Watered Gardener was featured as film No. 99 listed.

According to film historian Alan Williams, the version of The Watered Gardener , which is now available in film archives and on DVD, is not the original version from 1895, but a new recording from 1896, which was first distributed under the title Arroseur et arrosé . Francis Doublier , who was one of the first globally active camera operators for the Société Lumière , was responsible for this recording . According to more recent studies, however, the Lumière Institute lists the well-known version, in which the cocky boy is beaten by the gardener at the end of the film, as the original version from 1895 (under catalog number 99-1). In addition, the institute has two other versions, in which the boy is sprayed wet by the gardener, as films no. 99-2 and 99-3.

reception

Contemporary reception

The weekly newspaper L'Illustration explains how the cinématographe works based on the projection of
The Watered Gardener
Special advertising poster for the Cinématographe Lumière

The Lumière brothers' early films were perceived by their contemporaries not as works of art but rather as technical innovations. Louis Lumière himself saw his invention as an improved chronophotographic system, so the audience did not focus on the individual films, but on the experience of seeing moving images in a previously unknown quality. The film historians Tom Gunning and André Gaudreault coined the term cinema of attractions for this early reception of the medium of film . In a newspaper article in April 1896, the Parisian journalist Henri de Parville showed greater interest in details in the background, such as the “trembling of the leaves that were blown by the wind” than in the actual plot of the films, the motifs of which he only briefly listed.

The Russian writer Maxim Gorky , on the other hand, dealt in more detail with the films he had seen at a screening of the Cinématographe Lumière during the All-Russian Industrial and Crafts Exhibition in Nizhny Novgorod in the summer of 1896. He described his visit as "I was in the Kingdom of Shadows yesterday . " Gorky found the black-and-white images disturbing and depressing. He was both fascinated and shocked by the photographic fidelity of the film The Watered Gardener , the plot of which he described in detail and finally stated: "The viewer believes that he too will be splashed in the next moment and involuntarily drives back."

Gorky's newspaper article is one of the few contemporary reports that goes into greater detail on the film The Watered Gardener . Nevertheless, this film took a prominent position in the reception of the cinématographe early on, and the image of the gardener sprayed wet had a high recognition value. In May 1896 , the French weekly newspaper L'Illustration explained how a film projector works based on a performance of The Watered Gardener . Also in 1896, the graphic artist Marcellin Auzolle drew an advertising poster for the Société Lumière , which shows a laughing audience during a performance of The Watered Gardener . This graphic is considered to be the first film poster to depict an individual film, even if in this case the Cinématographe Lumière was advertised.

Influence on other filmmakers

The Biter Bit , a British remake of The Watered Gardener from 1899 (excerpt)

The high popularity of The Watered Gardener led to the fact that numerous imitations and new films were made, which in turn increased the awareness of the film material. All the major film producers of the late 1890s took up the subject of the sprayed gardener and created their own copy as plagiarism ; the film journalists Maurice Bardeché and Robert Brasillach had already established in 1935 in their Histoire du cinéma that the film pioneers had all basically made the same films. In 2006, film historian Jane M. Gaines listed more than ten versions of The Watered Gardener , which were made between 1895 and 1898 in the United States, the United Kingdom and France.

The Watered Gardener was the Lumière brothers' first film that Edison had copied; probably a remake with Edison's Vitascope projector was shown before the cinematograph was first presented in the United States. Another version of The Watered Gardener was created in the United States in 1896 by J. Stuart Blackton . In the UK, copies of George Albert Smith ( Gardener with Hose, or the Mischievous Boy , 1896), Birt Acres ( A Surrey Garden , 1896) and Bamforth & Company ( The Biter Bit , 1899) have been documented.

In France, both Georges Méliès and Alice Guy made copies of The Watered Gardener early in their careers . Both were familiar with the Lumière brothers' films from an early age; Méliès was one of the 33 visitors to the first film screening in the Salon India ; Alice Guy was present at the very first screening of the Cinématographe on March 22, 1895. Guy shot a number of adaptations of Lumière's works for Gaumont , including L'Arroseur arrosé in early 1898 . Méliès' L'Arroseur from 1896 was his sixth directorial work; he also took up the theme in the film Un malheur n'arrive jamais seul , published in 1903 , which, according to film historian Richard Abel, is an homage to the Lumière film. With the film Factory Exit, the German film pioneer Oskar Messter also sold his own version of The Watered Gardener , in which he linked the comedy off with workers leaving the Lumière works .

In addition to the various imitations, The Watered Gardener was the inspiration for a large number of films that showed similarly staged pranks. The actions were largely similar in their basic structure, but met the expectations of the audience. The way the prank came about was more important than the actual gag. According to film historian Tom Gunning, a separate genre of mischief-gag films developed, which was one of the most important film genres between 1896 and 1905 . In the United States in particular, numerous short comedies were made in which rascals played the leading role. Titles such as Biographs The Bad Boy and the Poor Old Grandpa from 1897 or Edison's The Terrible Kids from 1906 shaped the image of the “bad boys”, which from 1910 also found itself in the Western genre.

The motif of the gardener spraying himself wet with a garden hose remained present in the film comedy in the following decades. Biographs and Vitagraphs comedies of the early 1910s differed little in their plot from the works of early film history. Mack Sennett, whose career began at Biograph, as head of Keystone Studios , turned these simple comedies into extremely successful slapstick films with the Keystone Kops and stars like Mabel Normand and Charles Chaplin . For the film theorist Gerald Mast, the cake fights in the Keystone comedies are a direct development of the gag from The Watered Gardener . In 1914, however, Chaplin was unable to prevail with Normand and Sennett with the idea of incorporating the garden hose gag into the plot of the short film Mabel at the Wheel .

The British filmmaker Malcolm Le Grice created a modern remake of The Watered Gardener in 1974 with the experimental short film After Lumière - L'Arroseur arrosé . Further references to The Watered Gardener can be found in François Truffaut's short film Die Unschämten , in David Lynch's thriller Blue Velvet and in the episode The Video Light Chair in the animated series The Simpsons .

Film historical evaluation

Classification as a genre film

Even if Louis and Auguste Lumière can by no means be regarded as the inventors of film or cinema, their contribution to establishing the medium of film in film studies is undisputed. For the film historian David A. Cook, the cinematograph marked the "high point in the prehistory of cinema" . The watered gardener is considered to be the "hour of birth of the game film" and - according to Siegfried Kracauer - can be regarded as the "nucleus and archetype of all later film amusements " . Although there were films with funny content before, such as the film Fred Ott's Sneeze filmed by William KL Dickson for Edison in 1894 , these films had no plot. For the film scholar Corinna Müller, on the other hand , The Watered Gardener fulfills the “fact of a cinematic ' narration '” .

The film historian Lisa Trahair described three components in The Watered Gardener that determined the style of the comedy film in the following years: a narrative structure, a gag and a mechanism for triggering the gag (here the garden hose). Based on the philologist Wladimir Propp , Noël Burch defined the elements beginning , continuation and conclusion of the plot as the minimum requirements for a narrative film; these are fulfilled by The Watered Gardener . Due to the lack of a montage , however, according to Roger Odin, one can only speak of an extrinsic narrative structure. The Romance scholar Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink, on the other hand, sees the showered gardener as the first “epic-narrative” structures that characterize early French film and its relationship to literature. Due to the inspiration of the film by the picture stories of Vogel and Colomb, The Watered Gardener is also regarded as the first literary and comic film adaptation in history.

In addition to the staging of the visual gimmick, The Watered Gardener succeeded in introducing suspense as a dramatic medium in the film. Although it is not the film is a Hitchcock - thriller , but voltage is generated by the fact that the viewer has a knowledge advantage over the unsuspecting gardener. The tension finally discharges in the comic moment of the film. Louis Lumière followed the first rule of suspense by choosing long shots as the setting size: "Tell the viewer all the facts" .

Tension also arises from the question of whether the gardener can catch the rascal. The watered gardener thus contains an element of the chase films , the filmed chases that developed into one of the most popular genres of early cinema between 1904 and 1907. For the film scholar Thomas Elsaesser , a further moment of tension arises from the question of whether the action can be completed within the length of the film, which was predetermined by the film material. As a result, the early Lumière films had a countdown structure” familiar from classic narrative cinema .

Stylistic evaluation

Since The Watered Gardener has a clearly recognizable fictional content, the film was viewed by film historians such as Siegfried Kracauer as "not characteristic" of the work of the Lumière brothers. In the assessment of the work, however, a change has set in since the 1970s that, in Thomas Elsaesser's opinion, amounts to a “reinterpretation” of the Lumière films. The Lumières are no longer regarded exclusively as creators of non-narrative, documentary films, but are considered in the so-called “New Film History” as creators of “realistic illusions” . Not only in The Watered Gardener , but also in the views and topical films, the film camera was placed in such a way that "thanks to a series of carefully made decisions, a logical narrative structure" could be conveyed. The staging of the plot in The Watered Gardener corresponded to the careful staging of reality in documentary views of workers leaving the Lumière works .

Since the early films of the Société Lumière were shot in the tableau style without panning the camera , the available field of view had to be optimally used. In The Watered Gardener , the mise-en-scène (composition, composition) is particularly well thought out. With the carefully worked out choreography of the zigzag movements of the characters in the film, Louis Lumière managed to explore the scope of the technical possibilities. The limitation of the picture frame is particularly evident from the fact that the gardener has to drag the boy into the picture in order to chastise him. According to Thomas Elsaesser you can at the basted gardeners speak of a double frame: there is a time frame within which the action takes place must , and a spatial frame away the plot does not take place on the can .

In dealing with the limitation of the picture frame, the Lumière brothers stage a “self-reflective look” . The specifications of a centered image composition were deliberately disregarded, so the gardener can be seen at the beginning in the left half of the image. Nevertheless, The Watered Gardener - like many other films by the Lumière brothers - has a symmetry in the plot; especially in the later versions of the film there is a “reflection” in which the gardener no longer hits the boy, but also splashes him wet. The motif of reflection and reversal is already hinted at in the original title Arroseur arrosé (analogous translation: The poured bower ). The pictorial framework in which the plot is embedded is also symmetrical. The last picture corresponds exactly to the beginning of the film, order has been restored for the gardener.

literature

  • Georges Sadoul : Louis Lumière . Seghers, Paris 1964.
  • Tom Gunning: Crazy Machines in the Garden of Forking Paths: Mischief Gags and The Origins of American Film Comedy . In: Kristine Brunovska Karnick, Henry Jenkins (Eds.): Classical Hollywood Comedy . Routledge, New York 1995, ISBN 0-415-90640-7 , pp. 88-105.
  • Thomas Elsaesser : Film History and Early Cinema: Archeology of a Media Change . edition text + kritik, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-88377-696-3 .

Web links

Notes and individual references

  1. ^ Rémi Fournier Lanzoni: French Cinema: From its Beginnings to the Present . Continuum International Publishing, New York 2002, ISBN 0-8264-1399-4 , p. 28.
  2. ^ Conférence de M. Louis Lumière à la Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale . In: Bulletin du Photo-Club de Paris. No. 51, April 1895, pp. 125-126.
  3. Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema , p. 57.
  4. ^ Georges Sadoul: Louis Lumière , p. 106.
  5. ^ Georges Sadoul: Louis Lumière , p. 53.
  6. ^ Donald Crafton: Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898-1928 . MIT Press, Cambridge 1982, ISBN 0-262-03083-7 , pp. 37-39.
  7. ^ Georges Sadoul: Lumière - The Last Interview . In: Sight & Sound . No. 66, Vol. 17, summer 1948, p. 70.
  8. see the list of all presentations ( Memento of February 11, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) by the Lumière Institute
  9. André Gay provided the first detailed description of the cinematograph technique in July 1895 in the article Le Cinématographe de MM. Auguste et Louis Lumière . In: Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées. 6e Année, No. 14, July 30, 1895, pp. 609-648.
  10. ^ Deac Rossell: Living Pictures: The Origins of the Movies . State University of New York Press, Albany 1998, ISBN 0-7914-3767-1 , pp. 132-135.
  11. ^ Robert Pearson: Early Cinema . In: Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (Ed.): The Oxford History of World Cinema . Oxford University Press, Oxford 1996. ISBN 0-19-874242-8 , p. 14.
  12. ^ Erik Barnouw: Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film . Oxford University Press, New York 1993, ISBN 0-19-507898-5 , p. 11.
  13. ^ Rachael Low: The History of British Film. Volume I: The History of the British Film 1896-1906 . Routledge, London 1997, ISBN 0-415-15451-0 , p. 44.
  14. ^ Charles Musser: The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 . University of California Press, Berkeley 1994, ISBN 0-520-08533-7 , p. 138.
  15. Guido Marc Pruys: The rhetoric of film synchronization: How foreign feature films are censored, changed and viewed in Germany . Narr, Tübingen 1997, ISBN 3-8233-4283-5 , p. 140.
  16. Jeebesh Bagchi, Lawrence Liang, Ravi Sundaram, Sudhir Krishnaswamy (Eds.): Contested Commons / Trespassing Publics: A Public Record . Sarai Program, Delhi 2005, ISBN 81-901429-6-8 , p. 44.
  17. ^ Georges Sadoul: Louis Lumière , p. 152.
  18. ^ Alan Williams: Republic of Images: A History of French Filmmaking . Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1992, ISBN 0-674-76267-3 , p. 408.
  19. a b c Jane M. Gaines: Early Cinema's Heyday of Copying: The Too Many Copies of L'Arroseur arrosé (The Waterer Watered) . In: Cultural Studies Vol. 20, Nos. 2/3, March / May 2006, pp. 227-244.
  20. a b Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema , p. 56.
  21. ^ Tom Gunning: Crazy Machines in the Garden of Forking Paths , p. 88.
  22. Tom Gunning: The Cinema of Attraction: Early Film, Its Spectator, and the Avant-Garde . In: Robert Stam, Toby Miller (Eds.): Film and Theory: An Anthology . Blackwell, Malden 2000, ISBN 0-631-20625-6 , pp. 229-235.
  23. ^ Henri de Parville: Le Cinématographe . In: Les Annales politiques et littéraires , April 26, 1896, pp. 269–270.
  24. Maxim Gorki (pseudonym: IM Pacatus): Beglye zametki. Sinematographer Lyum'era . In: Nizhegorodskii listok , July 4, 1896.
  25. quoted in Siegfried Kracauer : Theory of the film . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt a. M. 1964, p. 69.
  26. L'Illustration, No 2779, 54e Année, May 30, 1896, pp. 441–456.
  27. Jean Jacques Meusy: Cinémas de France, 1894-1918: Une histoire en images . Arcadia Éditions, Paris 2009, ISBN 978-2-913019-61-4 , p. 201.
  28. Maurice Bardèche, Robert Brasillach: Histoire du cinema . Denoël, Paris 1935, p. 15.
  29. ^ Charles Musser: Edison Motion Pictures, 1890-1900: An Annotated Filmography . Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington 1997, ISBN 8-886-15507-7 , p. 221.
  30. ^ A b Charles Musser: The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 . University of California Press, Berkeley 1994, ISBN 0-520-08533-7 , p. 141.
  31. ^ Rachael Low: The History of British Film. Volume I: The History of the British Film 1896-1906 . Routledge, London 1997, ISBN 0-415-15451-0 , p. 30.
  32. ^ John Barnes: The Beginnings of the Cinema in England, 1894-1901 . University of Exeter Press, Exeter 1998, ISBN 0-85989-564-5 , p. 225.
  33. ^ Simon Popple, Joe Kember: Early Cinema: From Factory Gate to Dream Factory . Wallflower, London 2004, ISBN 1-903364-58-2 , p. 35.
  34. ^ Alison McMahan: Alice Guy Blaché: Lost Visionary of the Cinema . Continuum, New York 2002, ISBN 0-8264-5158-6 , p. 23.
  35. ^ Richard Abel: The Ciné Goes to Town: French Cinema 1896-1914 . University of California Press, Berkeley 1998, ISBN 0-520-07936-1 , p. 90.
  36. Martin Loiperdinger: Oskar Messter: Film pioneer of the imperial era . Stroemfeld, Frankfurt am Main 1994, ISBN 3-87877-762-0 , pp. 40-41.
  37. ^ Charles Musser: The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 . University of California Press, Berkeley 1994, ISBN 0-520-08533-7 , pp. 5-6.
  38. ^ Tom Gunning: Crazy Machines in the Garden of Forking Paths , p. 89.
  39. Murray Pomerance, Frances Ward Gate: Where The Boys Are: Cinemas Of Masculinity And Youth . Wayne State University Press, Detroit 2005, ISBN 0-8143-3115-7 , p. 4.
  40. ^ Rob King: The Fun Factory: The Keystone Film Company and the Emergence of Mass Culture . University of California Press, Berkeley 2009, ISBN 978-0-520-25537-1 , pp. 41-42.
  41. Gerald Mast: The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1973, ISBN 0-226-50978-8 , p. 51.
  42. David Robinson: Chaplin. His life, his art . Diogenes, Zurich 1993, ISBN 3-257-22571-7 , p. 153.
  43. ^ David Bordwell : On the History of Film Style . Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1997, ISBN 0-674-63428-4 , p. 103.
  44. David Nicholls: François Truffaut . BT Batsford, London 1993, ISBN 0-7134-6694-4 , p. 29.
  45. Jürgen Felix: Modern Film Theory . Bender, Mainz 2007, ISBN 978-3-9806528-1-0 , p. 59.
  46. ^ Entry movie connections in the Internet Movie Database (accessed September 27, 2012).
  47. ^ David A. Cook: A History of the Narrative Film . Norton, New York 2004, ISBN 0-393-97868-0 , p. 12.
  48. Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink: French cultural and media studies. An introduction . Narr, Tübingen 2004, ISBN 3-8233-4963-5 , p. 114.
  49. ^ Siegfried Kracauer : Theory of the film . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt a. M. 1964, p. 57.
  50. Gerald Mast: The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1973, ISBN 0-226-50978-8 , pp. 31-32.
  51. ^ Corinna Müller: Early German Cinematography: Formal, Economic and Cultural Developments 1907–1912 . Metzler, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-476-01256-5 , p. 5.
  52. Lisa Trahair: The Comedy of Philosophy: Sense and Nonsense in early cinematic slapstick . State University of New York Press, Albany 2007, ISBN 978-0-7914-7247-7 , p. 69.
  53. ^ Noël Burch: Life to those Shadows . University of California Press, Berkeley 1990, ISBN 0-520-07143-3 , p. 159.
  54. ^ Roger Odin : Early Cinema and Film Theory . In: André Gaudreault, Nicolas Dulac, Santiago Hidalgo (eds.): A Companion to Early Cinema . Wiley-Blackwell, New York 2012, ISBN 978-1-4443-3231-5 , pp. 230-231.
  55. Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink: French cultural and media studies. An introduction . Narr, Tübingen 2004, ISBN 3-8233-4963-5 , p. 218.
  56. William Guynn: The Routledge Companion to Film History . Routledge, London 2011, ISBN 0-203-84153-0 , p. 141.
  57. ^ Frank Kessler: Attraction, tension, film form . In: montage / av , 2/2/1993, p. 119.
  58. ^ Charles Derry: The Suspense Thriller: Films in the Shadow of Alfred Hitchcock . McFarland, Jefferson 1988, ISBN 0-7864-1208-9 , p. 34.
  59. ^ Noël Burch: Life to those Shadows . University of California Press, Berkeley 1990, ISBN 0-520-07143-3 , p. 149.
  60. ^ André Gaudreault: From Plato to Lumière: Narration and Monstration in Literature and Cinema . University of Toronto Press, Toronto 2009, ISBN 978-0-8020-9885-6 , pp. 15-16.
  61. a b Thomas Elsaesser: Showing Reality: The Early Film Under the Sign of Lumières . In: Ursula von Keitz, Kay Hoffmann (eds.): The practice of the documentary gaze: Fiction film and non-fiction film between truth claims and expressive objectivity 1895–1945 . Schüren, Marburg 2001. ISBN 3-89472-328-9 , p. 38.
  62. ^ Siegfried Kracauer: Theory of the film . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt a. M. 1964, p. 58.
  63. Tom Gunning: The Cinema of Attraction: Early Film, Its Spectator, and the Avant-Garde . In: Robert Stam, Toby Miller (Eds.): Film and Theory: An Anthology . Blackwell, Malden 2000, ISBN 0-631-20625-6 , p. 230.
  64. a b Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema , p. 58.
  65. ^ André Gaudreault: From Plato to Lumière: Narration and Monstration in Literature and Cinema . University of Toronto Press, Toronto 2009, ISBN 978-0-8020-9885-6 , p. 14.
  66. ^ Daniel Fritsch: Georg Simmel in the cinema: The sociology of early film and the adventure of modernity . transcript, Bielefeld 2009, ISBN 978-3-8376-1315-5 , pp. 114-117.
  67. Michael Chanan: The Dream that Kicks: The Prehistory and Early Years of Cinema in Britain . Routledge, London 1996, ISBN 0-415-11750-X , p. 28.
  68. Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema , p. 63.
  69. ^ Marshall Deutelbaum: Structural Patterning in the Lumière Films . In: John L. Fell (Ed.): Film before Griffith . University of California Press, Berkeley 1983, ISBN 0-520-04738-9 , p. 309.
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on November 27, 2012 in this version .