Workers leave the Lumière factory

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Movie
German title Workers leave the Lumière factory
Original title La Sortie de l'Usine Lumière à Lyon
Country of production France
Publishing year 1895
length 1 minute
Rod
Director Louis Lumière
production Louis Lumière
camera Louis Lumière

Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory (Original title: La Sortie de l'Usine Lumière à Lyon , also known as: La Sortie des Usines Lumière ) is a French short film from 1895. It is the oldest film of the Lumiere brothers , was at the first public presentation of the Cinématographe and is one of the films that were shown for the first time to a paying audience on December 28, 1895 at the Paris Salon India du Grand Café . There are several versions of the 50-second long strip, all of which were probably made in the spring or summer of 1895.

Shown are the numerous employees of the Lumière family's photographic factory who leave the factory premises for lunch. Although this single setting of the film staged was true Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory as the style for the documentary views of early film history. The film became an international success, found numerous imitators and is today one of the best-known examples of early cinema.

action

The film consists of a single shot. The factory gates of the Lumière works in Montplaisir, a suburb of Lyon , open for lunch. The mostly female employees leave the factory and step left or right out of the picture. Individual workers are out and about on bicycles; some versions of the film also show a horse-drawn vehicle and a dog. After all employees have left the company premises, the gates are closed again.

History of origin

Louis (right) and Auguste Lumière , 1895

The emergence of workers leaving the Lumière factory is closely linked to the invention of the cinématograph and marks the end of the first stage of development of the new film camera . Antoine Lumière , the father of Louis and Auguste , gave the impetus for the invention when he died in the summer of 1894 brought back a sample of a celluloid film strip on a visit from Paris , which was used in the kinetoscopes successfully sold by Thomas Alva Edison .

The Lumières, who had specialized in the production of photographic plates in their company Société Anonyme des Plaques et Papiers Photographiques Antoine Lumière et ses Fils ( Société Lumière for short ) , immediately recognized the commercial potential of these film strips and began to develop their own apparatus for Record moving images . They saw a more sensible use of the new medium of film in the projection of the recorded images instead of the viewing through a magnifying glass in a peep box, which Edison favored . At the end of 1894, Louis Lumière took the decisive step in image projection with the development of an intermittent film drive .

The result of the improvements was the Cinématographe, patented on February 13, 1895 (French Patent No. 245.032), which could be used not only as a film camera, but also as a copier and film projector . Unlike Edison's bulky camera, which could only be used almost exclusively in a specially built film studio  - the Black Maria  - the cinématographe was a portable, hand-operated device that enabled the Lumières, as passionate photographers, to work outdoors.

Workers leave the Lumière works is the oldest known film that was produced with the cinématograph. Even if Louis Lumière stated in the last interview before his death in 1948 that the film was made in the summer of 1894, i.e. long before the decisive development step in the invention of the cinematograph, today the date of 19 March 1895 is taken as the date of creation Films on. For the shooting, the cinématograph was set up in front of the entrance gate of the Lumière works on Rue Saint-Victor , today's Rue du Premier Film . The camera was operated by Louis Lumière, while his brother Auguste directed the employees, who set off on his signal.

Several different versions of the film are known, all of which are believed to have been shot in the spring or summer of 1895. The versions were created in the subsequent stages of development of the cinematograph; In addition, Louis and Auguste Lumière tried to further improve the image structure by repositioning the camera. In the latest known version of Workers Leaving the Lumière Works, the “plot” of the film is framed by opening and closing the factory gates. In addition to the three original versions, which film historians differentiate on the basis of individual elements such as the moving wagon (which is either pulled by one or two horses or does not appear in the film), the film was made in 1896 or 1897 due to the high demand for copies of the worn out one Re-recorded original negative.

Performance history

Presentation in scientific circles

Film screening with the cinematograph (drawing by Louis Poyet)

Three days after the first version of Workers Leaving the Lumière Works , Louis and Auguste Lumière presented their invention to the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale ("Society for the Promotion of National Industry") in on March 22, 1895 Paris before. As part of a lecture about the services and products of his company, Louis Lumière first showed photographs of the workshops before he then showed the surprised auditorium in moving images how the employees leave the factory. The strip shown here for the first time served not only to present the newly invented cinematograph, but was also a " promotional film " in which the size of the company was conveyed through the many people who can be seen in workers leaving the Lumière works . Society members who were familiar with Edison's kinetoscope were drawn to the projection of the film and asked Lumière to repeat the screening.

After the first successful presentation of Workers Leaving the Lumière Works , Louis and Auguste Lumière shot numerous films in Lyon in the spring and summer of 1895 and at their summer residence in the southern French port city of La Ciotat . With their recordings, which lasted just 50 seconds, they documented scenes from the world of work, similar to their first work, but also everyday things like feeding a toddler ( baby's breakfast ) .

On June 10, 1895, Louis and Auguste Lumière presented a selection of their films on a larger scale for the first time during a multi-day congress of the French Association of Photographers in Lyon. They had previously filmed the arrival of the conference participants. These recordings were shown together with Workers Leaving the Lumière Works and six other films. The projections sparked enthusiasm among the specialist audience; the astronomer Jules Janssen described the performance as "the big event of the session".

In the following months, further private screenings of the Lumière films for members of photographic and scientific societies took place, including in November 1895 for the first time in Belgium . Workers leaving the Lumière works was one of the films featured in all screenings. Reports about these events in the specialist magazines aroused great interest in the cinematograph. In view of the numerous requests for further screenings, the Lumières decided to prepare a first commercial screening of their films. At the same time, engineer Jules Carpentier built 200 copies of the Cinématograph for further marketing of the invention.

Commercial demonstrations

Program of the first demonstrations in the Salon India du Grand Café

Antoine Lumière rented a basement room in the Grand Café on the Place de l'Opéra in Paris and prepared a first presentation there. The first screening took place on December 28, 1895 in front of theater operators and press representatives, but without the inventor of the cinematograph. Ten films were shown within a quarter of an hour, according to the traditional program, the show opened with workers leaving the Lumière works . A total of only 33 paying customers turned up on December 28th. In the following days, however, the number of interested parties rose continuously, so that in January 1896 up to 2500 spectators attended the demonstrations every day.

Even if today December 28, 1895 is widely regarded as the birth of cinema , Louis and Auguste Lumière were not the first to project films and show them to a paying audience. Independently of them, film projectors were developed in the United States (by the Latham brothers), in Great Britain (by Birt Acres and Robert W. Paul ) and in Germany (by Max and Emil Skladanowsky and by Oskar Messter ). The initial technical superiority and above all the professional marketing of the cinématograph led to the Lumières becoming one of the leading film producers within a few months.

By licensing their invention to trained camera operators , the Lumière brothers fully controlled the marketing of the cinematograph. The earlier recordings by Louis Lumière found worldwide distribution in a short time. Within a year, the cinematograph was presented in numerous European countries, in North America, Mexico, North Africa, India, Japan and Australia. At the end of January 1896, the Lumières presented their films to the general public in their hometown of Lyon, followed by the first screening of the Cinématograph in London on February 20, 1896 . On March 20, 1896, the cinematograph was shown for the first time in Vienna in front of invited guests at the KK Graphische Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt . In Germany, the first public screening took place on April 20 in Cologne at the invitation of the film-loving entrepreneur Ludwig Stollwerck . On June 29, 1896, the Société Lumière finally began a guest performance at the Union Square Theater in New York , where the cinématograph quickly surpassed Edison's Vitascope system in popularity. In all places counted workers leaving the Lumière works on the premiere program.

In the spring of 1897, the Lumières dissolved their monopoly and also sold the films and equipment they produced to independent projectionists . Louis and Auguste Lumière dealt mainly with photography again and sold the patent rights to the cinématograph to the entrepreneur Charles Pathé . The last catalog of the Société Lumière appeared in 1905 and comprised 1,422 titles, including La Sortie des usines Lumière as film No. 91.

reception

Contemporary reception

Audience reactions

Advertising poster from 1896: It is not a single film that is advertised, but the experience of the film showing

While the Lumière brothers' screenings in front of scientific and photographic societies found extensive coverage in the specialist press in the course of 1895, the commercial premiere of the Cinématographe Lumière on December 28 was largely ignored by the press due to a lack of timely advertising. The theater operators present, among them the later film pioneer Georges Méliès , immediately recognized the marketing possibilities, but had to realize that the Lumières did not want to sell their invention. The only representatives of the press, reporters from the lesser-known newspapers Le Radical and La Poste , reported on pictures that, in their wealth of detail, not only provided a “perfect illusion of real life” , but were also able to preserve and reproduce this life. As a result, death ceased to be final.

When word of mouth brought commercial success to Paris within a few days, the experience of seeing “moving photographs” in a previously unknown quality was at the fore of the public reception of the Lumière films. The content of the individual short films was given less attention, the show values ​​were more important to the audience of early cinema. The film historians Tom Gunning and André Gaundreault coined the term cinema of attractions for this early reception of the medium of film .

Even though workers leaving the Lumière works were not as spectacular as a train entering the La Ciotat station was, the film's depicted crowds were detailed in several newspaper reports from 1896. An early Parisian review gave the impression that workers had left the Lumière works when the projection of the photographic image suddenly started moving: “The gate of a factory opens and hundreds of workers pour out, bicycles, running Dogs, wagons - everything moves and exudes. "

The realistic portrayal of the workforce in this film was also praised; the British critic O. Winter even saw a parallel with the literary naturalism of Émile Zola . A reviewer for the New York Dramatic Mirror said on the occasion of the New York premiere of Workers Leaving the Lumière Works that the representation was so precise that the explainer employed for the demonstration, who was supposed to explain the meaning of the images, was not necessary at all - "The pictures speak for themselves."

Model for other topical films

A so-called "Factory gate film" by Mitchell and Kenyon: Employees at Walker Engineering Works (1900)

The simple representation of the everyday world in workers leave the Lumière works became the style for other films with which the Lumières, but also subsequent filmmakers, portrayed their environment. Documentary recordings of passers-by in prominent places, during work or on special occasions can be found in many films that are considered to be forerunners to newsreels . In the catalogs of the Société Lumière , these strips called Actualités made up the largest share.

One of the most frequently imitated motifs of the early Lumière films is the subject of workers after work. It was copied many times over the first decade of film history. The film Clark's Thread Mill , published by Edison in the autumn of 1896, imitated Louis Lumière's film, as did the film Feierabend einer Kölner Fabrik , commissioned by Ludwig Stollwerck , which was first shown on May 23, 1896.

The popularity of these remakes was based on the one hand on the fact that a large part of the audience came from the working class and recognized themselves in the films shown. On the other hand, the audience spoke of the local reference if well-known buildings or factories from their own city could be recognized. As late as 1901, the film company Hepworth and Co. recommended in the British trade journal The Showmen that traveling projectionists should include a local film in their programs. The greatest attraction is always a film that is shot on site at a factory gate, as hundreds of factory workers would then come to the screenings with their relatives to experience themselves on the screen.

From the numerous imitations of workers leaving the Lumière works , the short-lived genre of factory gate films developed in Great Britain , one of whose most important producers was the film distributor Mitchell and Kenyon . The company employed several camera operators who traveled through the British provinces, not only taking pictures of factory gates, but also of everyday life of the population. Mitchell and Kenyon's topical films are considered to be the most important cinematic documents of the Edwardian era (1901 to 1914).

Modern references

The subject of workers leaving the factory, which has gone down in film history, was also taken up by various directors in the sound film era . Even if not every scene that takes place in front of a factory gate can be viewed as a tribute to Louis Lumière's film, there are some films in which the staging is clearly based on the historical model.

In the opinion of Godard biographer Douglas Morrey, the final scene of the film Pravda , published in 1970 by Groupe Dziga Vertov , inevitably calls to mind workers leaving the Lumière works . A variation of the scene in front of the Lumière factory gate is part of the opening sequence of Michelangelo Antonioni's feature film Blow Up . Despite a completely different composition, the Egyptian film Too Early / Too Late by Jean-Marie Straub and Danièle Huillet also pays homage to workers leaving the Lumière works .

The references to the Lumière brothers are clearly recognizable in some documentaries and experimental films . In Harun Farocki's Workers Leaving the Factory from 1995, the Lumière film is the starting point for the essay film ; in Hartmut Bitomsky's documentary The VW Complex from 1989, the final shot is consciously based on the historical model. The Austrian experimental filmmakers Peter Tscherkassky and Siegfried A. Fruhauf used the original material from Workers Leaving the Lumière Works in very different ways. In 1998, Fruhauf designed a remake with La Sortie in which the workers' sequence of movements is repeated several times, accelerates to a frenzy and finally freezes in a so-called " freeze frame ". Peter Tscherkassky's short film Motion Picture (La sortie des Ouvrier de l'Usine Lumiére á Lyon) from 1984 is one of the found footage films: He projects the Lumière film onto a series of film strips, which breaks the image down into individual columns. Tscherkassky thus interprets the artificiality of Lumière's staging, which was already recognized as artistic works by the avant-garde filmmakers of the 1920s when they first “rediscovered” the early Lumière films.

Film historical evaluation

Today's view of the Lumière works: On the glass plate in front of the Hangar du Premier Film you can see a still image from the film Workers leave the Lumière works .

The historical significance of workers leaving the Lumière works as the first published film by the Lumière brothers is undisputed among film historians. Despite the commercial success of Edison's kinetoscope, it was the cinematographers who first brought about the breakthrough for the new film technology; it marked the “high point in the prehistory of cinema” . The productions of the Société Lumière , however, according to the media scientist Werner Faulstich , "quickly played no role in the formation of film as a medium, as a complex system" .

The aesthetic evaluation of workers leaving the Lumière works , on the other hand, has undergone a change since the 1970s; the documentary and narrative character of the film was partially re-evaluated. For a long time, the film was considered to be the “first exhibit of the line of tradition that seemed to exemplarily correspond to the cinematographic status of the protocol medium and stood in opposition to the feature film . The film historian Tom Gunning settled the Lumièreschen actualites but prior to the documentary. He describes this form of film as “view”, which terminologically separates the pointing gesture of the early non-fictional film from the argumentative gesture of the later documentary film .

The comparison of the various known versions of the film shows that workers are leaving the Lumière works like a feature film was staged. The mise-en-scène , the composition of the picture, is determined more by aesthetic considerations than by real events. By opening the factory gates at the beginning of the film and closing them again at the end, Lumière created a symmetry in order to "give the plot a uniquely valid form" . In the opinion of Karin Bruns , workers leaving the Lumière works is an early example of the fact that “realities were simultaneously depicted - that is, 'documented' - and constructed, that is, recreated using the re-enactment process . Louis Lumière deliberately placed his camera so that a logical narrative structure could be conveyed. André Gaudreault describes workers leaving the Lumière works as a narrative film due to this narrative structure and thus contradicts semiotics such as Algirdas Julien Greimas or Tzvetan Todorov , who generally require a minimal narrative development in narrative films. The traditional distinction according to which the Lumières produced non-narrative films, but Georges Méliès was considered the father of narrative film, is no longer valid.

In addition to the mise-en-scène , according to Thomas Elsaesser, a mise en abyme can be observed in the film, as the actions at the factory gate are repeated on the smaller side door next to it within the picture frame. In addition to the symmetry of the plot, workers leaving the Lumière works are characterized by a previously unknown use of the depth of the space. The movement of the workers in front of the camera obviously continues outside of the picture frame (off frame) , which further increases the impression of the depth of the picture that the open factory releases.

The film historian Charles Musser sees different levels of content in addition to the spatial levels. The scene shown forms a transition in terms of location and time between the world of work inside the factory and the world of leisure outside the factory gate. The film also documents the paternalism of the Société Lumière . For the Lumière biographer Georges Sadoul , Arbeiter Leaving the Lumière Works became an inadvertent documentary account of a wealthy French family in the late 19th century.

literature

  • Richard Abel: The Ciné Goes to Town. French Cinema 1896-1914. Updated and expanded edition. University of California Press, Berkeley CA et al. 1998, ISBN 0-520-07936-1 .
  • Thomas Elsaesser : Film History and Early Cinema. Archeology of a Media Change. edition text + kritik, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-88377-696-3 .
  • Simon Popple, Joe Kember: Early Cinema. From Factory Gate to Dream Factory (= Short cuts. Vol. 20). Wallflower, London et al. 2004, ISBN 1-903364-58-2 .
  • Georges Sadoul : Louis Lumière. Choix de textes et propos de Louis Lumier̀e brevets. Témoignages sur les débuts du cinéma chronologies. Filmography. Bibliography. Documents iconographiques. Seghers, Paris 1964.
  • Alan Williams: Republic of Images. A History of French Filmmaking. Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA et al. 1992, ISBN 0-674-76267-3 .

Web links

Notes and individual references

  1. ^ Alan Williams: Republic of Images. 1992, p. 22.
  2. ^ Alan Williams: Republic of Images. 1992, p. 23.
  3. ^ Lumière - The Last Interview. In: Sight & Sound. Vol. 17, No. 66, summer 1948, ISSN  0037-4806 , pp. 68-70, here p. 69. Georges Sadoul suspects that a non-preserved forerunner of workers leaving the Lumière works was produced on paper film, see Georges Sadoul: Lumière et Mèliès. Edition augmentée, revisée. Lherminier, Paris 1985, ISBN 2-86244-048-5 , p. 123.
  4. ^ Rémi Fournier Lanzoni: French Cinema. From its beginnings to the present. Continuum International Publishing, New York NY et al. 2002, ISBN 0-8264-1399-4 , p. 28.
  5. Alternate Versions in the Internet Movie Database (accessed September 11, 2009).
  6. ^ Conférence de M. Louis Lumière à la Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale. In: Bulletin du Photo-Club de Paris. No. 51, April 1895, ZDB -ID 215174-1 , pp. 125-126.
  7. a b Richard Abel: The Ciné Goes to Town. 1998, p. 11.
  8. Richard M. Barsam: Nonfiction film. A critical history. Revised and expanded. Indiana University Press, Bloomington IN et al. 1992, ISBN 0-253-20706-1 , p. 21.
  9. ^ Jules Janssen : Discours prononcé à l'issue de la session le 15 June 1895. In: Bulletin de la Société Française de Photographie. 2d Series, Vol. 11, No. 17, 1895, ISSN  1254-6380 , p. 423.
  10. See the list of all presentations ( memento of the original from February 11, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. from the Lumière Institute (accessed September 23, 2009). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.institut-lumiere.org
  11. For a discussion of whether there is even a definable birthday for cinema, see Thomas Elsaesser: Filmgeschichte und early Kino. 2002, p. 301.
  12. ^ Robert Pearson: Early Cinema. In: Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (Ed.): The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford University Press, Oxford et al. 1996, ISBN 0-19-874242-8 , p. 14.
  13. ^ Erik Barnouw : Documentary. A history of the non-fiction film. 2nd revised edition. Oxford University Press, New York NY et al. 1993, ISBN 0-19-507898-5 , p. 11.
  14. ^ Elisabeth Büttner , Christian Dewald: The daily burning. A history of Austrian film from its beginnings to 1945. Residenz-Verlag, Salzburg et al. 2002, ISBN 3-7017-1261-1 , p. 23.
  15. ^ Peter Zimmermann (ed.): History of documentary film in Germany. Volume 1: Uli Jung, Martin Loiperdinger (ed.): Kaiserreich. 1895-1918. Reclam, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-15-010584-6 , p. 46.
  16. ^ David Robinson: From Peep Show to Palace. The Birth of American Film. Columbia University Press, New York NY et al. 1996, ISBN 0-231-10338-7 , pp. 62-63.
  17. The films were numbered thematically rather than chronologically, cf. Georges Sadoul: Louis Lumière. 1964, p. 158.
  18. André Gay provided the first detailed description of the cinematograph technique in July 1895 in the article Le Cinématographe de MM. Auguste et Louis Lumière. In: Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées. 6e Année, No. 14, July 30, 1895, pp. 633-636 .
  19. Elizabeth Ezra: Georges Méliès :. The Birth of the Auteur. Manchester University Press, Manchester et al. 2000, ISBN 0-7190-5395-1 , p. 12.
  20. Quoted in Maurice Bessy, Giuseppe M. Lo Duca: Louis Lumière. Inventor. Editions Prisma, Paris 1948, pp. 47–48.
  21. ^ Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema. 2002, p. 56.
  22. ^ A b Tom Gunning: The Cinema of Attraction: Early Film, Its Spectator, and the Avant-Garde. In: Robert Stam, Toby Miller (Eds.): Film and Theory. An Anthology. Blackwell, Malden MA et al. 2000, ISBN 0-631-20625-6 , pp. 229-235.
  23. Jacques Aumont: Lumière revisited. In: Film History. Vol. 8, No. 4, 1996, ISSN  0892-2160 , pp. 416-430, here p. 424.
  24. Quoted in Thomas Elsaesser: Showing Reality: The early film under the sign of Lumières. In: Ursula von Keitz, Katja Hoffmann (ed.): The practice of the documentary gaze. Fiction film and non fiction film between truth claims and expressive objectivity. 1895–1945 (= writings of the Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau Society. Vol. 7). Schüren, Marburg 2001, ISBN 3-89472-328-9 , pp. 27–50, here p. 35.
  25. ^ O. Winter: The Cinematograph. In: New Review. May 1896, pp. 507-513 (Reprinted in: Sight and Sound. Vol. 51, No. 4, Fall 1982, pp. 294-296).
  26. Quoted in Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema. 2002, p. 83.
  27. ^ Charles Musser: The Emergence of Cinema. The American Screen to 1907 (= History of the American Cinema. Vol. 1). University of California Press, Berkeley CA et al. 1994, ISBN 0-520-08533-7 , pp. 164-165.
  28. ^ Peter Zimmermann (ed.): History of documentary film in Germany. Volume 1: Uli Jung, Martin Loiperdinger (ed.): Kaiserreich. 1895-1918. Reclam, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-15-010584-6 , p. 59.
  29. a b Simon Popple, Joe Kember: Early Cinema , p. 36.
  30. The Showmen. Vol. 2, No. 34, July 26, 1901, ZDB -ID 989139-0 , (Reprinted in: Stephen Herbert (Ed.): A History of Early Film. Volume 1. Routledge, London et al. 2000, ISBN 0-415-21152-2 , p . 68).
  31. Mitchell and Kenyon on Screenonline (accessed September 23, 2009).
  32. ^ Douglas Morrey: Jean-Luc Godard. Manchester University Press, Manchester et al. 2005, ISBN 0-7190-6758-8 , p. 94.
  33. ^ Angelo Restivo: The Cinema of Economic Miracles. Visuality and Modernization in the Italian Art Film. Duke University Press, Durham NC 2002, ISBN 0-8223-2799-6 , p. 109.
  34. Jacques Aumont: Lumière revisited. In: Film History. Vol. 8, No. 4, 1996, pp. 416-430, here p. 429.
  35. Volker Pantenburg: Film as Theory. Image research with Harun Farocki and Jean-Luc Godard. transcript, Bielefeld 2006, ISBN 3-89942-440-9 , p. 155 (also: Münster, Universität, Dissertation, 2005).
  36. Description in the Austrian Independent Film and Video Database ( Memento of the original from December 1, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (accessed on September 17, 2009). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.filmvideo.at
  37. ^ Rhys Graham: Outer Space: The Manufactured Film of Peter Tscherkassky . In: Senses of Cinema , January 2001 (accessed September 17, 2009).
  38. ^ Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema. 2002, pp. 65-66.
  39. ^ David A. Cook: A History of the Narrative Film. 4th edition. Norton, New York NY et al. 2004, ISBN 0-393-97868-0 , p. 12.
  40. Werner Faulstich : Filmgeschichte (= UTB 2638). Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2005, ISBN 3-7705-4097-2 , pp. 19-20.
  41. ^ Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema. 2002, pp. 56-57.
  42. Karin Bruns : True Stories, Visual Lies? In: Michael Hofer, Monika Leisch-Kiesl (eds.): Evidence and deception. The status, impact and criticism of images (= Linz contributions to art history and philosophy. Vol. 1). transcript, Bielefeld 2008, ISBN 978-3-8376-1003-1 , pp. 151–170, here p. 154.
  43. Tom Gunning: Before the Documentary: Early Non-Fiction Films and the Aesthetics of "View". In: Beginnings of Documentary Films (= KINtop. Vol. 4). Stroemfeld / Roter Stern, Basel et al. 1995, ISBN 3-87877-784-1 , pp. 111–121.
  44. ^ Marshall Deutelbaum: Structural Patterning in the Lumière Films. In: Wide Angle . Vol. 3, No. 1, 1979, ISSN  0160-6840 , pp. 28-37, here p. 34.
  45. Karin Bruns: True Stories, Visual Lies? In: Michael Hofer, Monika Leisch-Kiesl (eds.): Evidence and deception. The status, impact and criticism of images (= Linz contributions to art history and philosophy. Vol. 1). transcript, Bielefeld 2008, ISBN 978-3-8376-1003-1 , pp. 151–170, here p. 153.
  46. ^ André Gaudreault: From Plato to Lumière. Narration and Monstration in Literature and Cinema. University of Toronto Press, Toronto et al. 2009, ISBN 978-0-8020-9885-6 , pp. 27-29.
  47. ^ A b Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema. 2002, p. 59.
  48. ^ Charles Musser: At the Beginning: Motion picture production, representation and ideology at the Edison and Lumière companies. In: Lee Grieveson, Peter Krämer (Eds.): The Silent Cinema Reader. Routledge, London et al. 2004, ISBN 0-415-25284-9 , pp. 15-30, here p. 18.
  49. ^ Georges Sadoul: History of the cinematic art. Extended, German-language edition. Schönbrunn-Verlag, Vienna 1957, p. 26.


This article was added to the list of excellent articles on November 11, 2009 in this version .