Homosexuality during the Nazi era

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Homosexuality in the time of National Socialism is a subject of historical studies that deals with the history of homosexuality in the German Reich (1933–1945) , in particular with the discrimination and persecution during this time.

Prehistory and ideology of the National Socialists

Until it was closed by the National Socialists, the Eldorado in Berlin was one of the central gay meeting places. (1932)

Until the National Socialists came to power in 1933, Berlin was a city with many gay and lesbian pubs, nightclubs and cabarets. There were also a number of travesty bars where tourists were entertained by performances by female actors. Also in the other large German cities such as B. Cologne and Hamburg there was a lively gay scene. A significant homosexual movement had existed since the 19th century . But the progress made in the emancipation of friends , as gays usually called themselves at the time, were thwarted by the rise of the NSDAP .

Leading party ideologues of the NSDAP took the view that homosexuality was incompatible with National Socialism . With the chief of staff of the SA Ernst Röhm , who had set up paramilitary forces since 1931 and thus contributed significantly to the establishment of the NSDAP as a ruling party, there was also a more or less "openly" homosexual Nazi leader who, after taking power in 1933, was the leader of others pursued persecution policy initially blocked. The conflict over Röhm's homosexuality and how to deal with homosexuals continued until his murder in the course of the so-called " Röhm Putsch " on July 1, 1934.

Adolf Hitler protected his close friend as long as he was useful. When Ernst Röhm demanded reforms, however, he had him murdered together with many other former party comrades in the " Night of the Long Knives " from June 30 to July 1, 1934. The background to this was conflicts about National Socialist economic policy, the future of the Reichswehr, but also about how to deal with the issue of homosexuality. SS and Gestapo boss Heinrich Himmler , who was largely responsible for the elimination of Roehm, saw homosexuality as a threat to the state, which he in the sense of the philosopher Hans Blüher regarded as a male domain. In his eyes, homosexual men strive to subvert state structures, which, however, does not strengthen them, as Blüher said, but on the contrary leads to the “destruction of the state”. In Röhm, who had actually installed some homosexual SA functionaries in his immediate environment, Himmler saw a kind of key witness to his conspiracy theory. The murder of Röhm and some other homosexuals from his inner circle of leaders, which Himmler organized in June 1934 on behalf of Hitler, was legitimized to the public as a defense against an attempted coup. That the connection between Röhm's alleged putsch intentions and a homosexual conspiracy was not just “propaganda”, but an ideological construct that grew out of Blüher's theses and turned into delusional belief, was evident from the fact that Himmler also took this line internally towards his Represented employees. The later Gestapo administration chief Werner Best reported that shortly after the murder, Himmler had already told the assembled SS leaders that they had "only just escaped the danger of getting a state from Urningen [homosexuals]".

persecution

With the assassination of Röhm, the way was clear for the pursuit policy pursued by Himmler. In July 1934, a special department II 1 S was established in the Secret State Police Office (Gestapo) in Berlin, which dealt with the follow-up to the "Röhm Putsch" and soon concentrated its activities on combating homosexuality. Himmler undoubtedly saw the greatest danger in those homosexuals who were in office and dignity in the state and party. However, the persecution that the Gestapo initiated in autumn 1934 was directed against all alleged homosexual men, regardless of the person. In December 1934, the Gestapo began raiding homosexuals in Berlin. In the following months hundreds, possibly even several thousand homosexual men were arrested and deported to the early Columbiahaus and Lichtenburg concentration camps .

On January 1, 1935, the Pariser Tageblatt reported :

“The following remarks are sent to us by a well-known scientist, which deal with the latest events in Germany from a special point of view. For a few weeks now I have been receiving oral and written reports from which it emerges that severe panic has broken out among the homosexual in Germany. It is roughly like the panic that seized the German Jews after April 1, 1934, the boycott day . These states of fear among homosexuals began as early as the bloody June 30, 1934, [...] but the real horror only gripped them since the night of December 8th to 9th, when many hundreds of them in the economies in which they are met, surprised by the secret state police, captured and taken directly to concentration camps, where they were received with savage insults and abuse. "

- Pariser Tageblatt : The "extermination" of homosexuals in the Third Reich. January 1, 1935, pp. 1-2.

In the years that followed, the persecution of homosexuals was further professionalized and institutionalized. In 1936, Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler created the Reichszentrale for combating homosexuality and abortion . Raids at meeting points for homosexuals, house searches and so-called "intensified interrogations" were among the preferred investigative methods of the Gestapo and the criminal police to stage local waves of persecution. The officers paid special attention to rascals, who had a good insight into the gay scene and who could incriminate many men. But 'ordinary' homosexuals were also put under so much pressure during interrogations that many eventually revealed the names of their friends. The Gestapo officials, in particular, used brutal methods, and they did not shy away from physical violence and torture. However, the local police authorities did not always pursue homosexuals with the vigor that the Berlin Gestapo wanted. The Reich Central Office for Combating Homosexuality and Abortion has therefore repeatedly sent "Sonderkommandos" with Gestapo officials from the homosexual department to the province. These temporarily took over the investigation, apparently with the aim of instructing the local criminal police and motivating them to take more decisive action.

Hitler saw homosexuality as a "degenerate" behavior that threatened the efficiency of the state and the male character of the German people. Gay men were denounced as "enemies of the people". They were accused of forming cliques of conspirators and a “state within the state”, of disrupting public morals and of endangering the birth rate in Germany. Attempts were made to force German gays, who, according to National Socialism, were part of the “ master race ”, into sexual and social conformity.

Legal basis

The National Socialist persecution of gay men took place primarily through the delimitation of Section 175 of the Reich Criminal Code (RStGB) , which was resolved on June 28, 1935 and entered into force on September 1 . In contrast to the Prussian-imperial version from the 19th century, which, according to the constant jurisprudence of the Reichsgericht, required "intercourse-like acts" for criminal liability, "covetous glances" were enough for criminal prosecution according to the will of the Nazi legislation. The persecution differentiated between allegedly "seduced" and so-called "seducer". While the “seduced” were supposed to get on the “right path” via normal criminal prosecution according to § 175, the “seducers” were to be “eliminated from the national community”. In a decree of July 12, 1940, the Reich Security Main Office made it clear that "in future all homosexuals who seduced more than one partner were to be taken into preventive police custody after their release from prison ".

In the “Leader's Decree on Keeping the SS and Police Clean” of November 15, 1941, Hitler ordered the death penalty for homosexual activity by members of the SS and police. In an order of March 7, 1942, Himmler demanded that the relevant units and training institutions should “point out that all members of the SS and police must be champions in the struggle to eradicate homosexuality in the German people”.

statistics

Convictions according to §§ 175 (including zoophilia)
year    Convictions  
1932  801
   
1933  957
1934 1069
1935 2363
1936 5801
1937 9244
1938 9536
1939 8963
1940 4200
1941 4426
1942 * 3963
1943 * 2218
* 1943: 1st half year doubled in
1942 & 1943 without young people
Sources: "Statistisches Reichsamt"
and Baumann 1968, p. 61.

The number of men who were convicted of homosexual offenses rose from 1935 rapidly until the outbreak of war in 1939. They were often after serving the fine imposed on them in prison, but sometimes without them had been convicted of court, from the Gestapo in concentration camps carried off. In the “Third Reich” over 100,000 men were recorded by the police ( pink lists ), 50,000 judgments were made on the basis of Sections 175 and 175a of the RStGB, an unknown, but probably rather small number was referred to psychiatric institutions . However, a proportion of those who have been persecuted for homosexual acts have not identified themselves as gay. According to the estimate of the sociologist Rüdiger Lautmann , around 10,000 homosexual men are likely to have been imprisoned in the Nazi concentration camps, of which around 53% were killed. There they had to wear the pink triangle , a badge that marked them as homosexuals in the camp. Estimates of the number of gay men who died in concentration camps during the Nazi era vary considerably. The reason for this is u. a. in that it cannot be determined how many people murdered for other reasons were homosexual: Jews, Sinti and Roma, etc.

According to the sociologists Philipp Korom and Christian Fleck, who studied the social background of homosexual persecution in Austria during the Nazi era, local studies in Germany have come to the conclusion that the middle class was more affected by homophobia and state persecution than the upper class. The analysis of files from Austrian regional courts confirms the findings in part, but shows the workers as the main group of victims.

activities

The aim of the Nazi regime was ostensibly “re-education measures” to change the sexual drive of gays towards heterosexual activity (e.g. forced visits to concentration camp brothels , with the behavior of the men being observed by SS officers). There are also documents - not only from concentration camps - forcibly, but supposedly "voluntarily requested" castrations . Numerous medical human experiments were also carried out in order to fathom the causes of male homosexuality (e.g. surgical implantation of an “artificial sex gland”, even after castration had been carried out beforehand) and, if possible, to eliminate it. In addition, gays and other victims of persecution were used by concentration camp doctors for “medical experiments” that were fatal from the outset . B. with regard to the investigation of the transmission of the causative agents of infectious diseases. Among other things, the Danish doctor Carl Værnet made attempts in Buchenwald concentration camp to "cure" prisoners of their homosexuality.

Briefing of a homosexual in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp as a "shoe runner" punishment detention center

Gays who did not conform and suppress their sexual orientation should be sent to concentration camps for labor to reeducate or destroy. An example of a targeted murder campaign is the murder of around 200 homosexual men from July to September 1942 in the Klinkerwerk satellite camp of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp. In Buchenwald from June to September 1942, almost half of the Rosa Winkel prisoners at the time were killed. And in Ravensbrück, where a transport with 33 homosexuals from Buchenwald arrives in March, a noticeable number of homosexual men were killed in the spring and summer of 1942.

Anti-homosexual laws were widespread in the western world, but the Nazis' persecution measures were unprecedented. Until the 1970s, when many of these laws were defused, many gay men did not feel safe enough to tell their story. So were the 175 and 175 a paragraph in the postwar period in the Federal Republic of Germany and in the GDR after the liberation from National Socialism continued (unchanged in the Federal Republic of Germany until 1969, with certain modifications in the GDR until 1968).

Persecution of homosexual clergy

In 1936 and 1937, the Nazi state organized a series of around 250 moral trials against members of the order and priests , mainly on account of allegations of homosexual acts, but also the abuse of children and wards . Most of the trials ended with high penal sentences , but some of them had been prepared very negligently. In the summer of 1937, for example, a witness wanted to recognize his alleged molester in the presiding judge instead of the defendant . At the direction of Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels , the press reported extensively and in some cases maliciously about the proceedings. The aim was to discredit the church and to weaken the rights promised in the Reich Concordat. The campaign was temporarily suspended during the Olympic Games in the summer of 1936 and only ended a year later for no apparent reason.

Dealing with gay women

The extent to which homosexual women were persecuted by the Nazi regime is controversial. The historian Alexander Zinn argues that lesbian women were not persecuted as such. In Germany they did not fall under the homosexual paragraph 175, although Nazi lawyers discussed this again and again. Claudia Schoppmann and Jens Dobler point out, however, that lesbians were sometimes persecuted for other criminal offenses such as fornication with addicts , sexual abuse , arousing public nuisance or prostitution . In the files of the concentration camps there are also references to lesbian behavior that was punished with flogging. For example, Mary Pünjer , a Jew imprisoned in Ravensbrück, was registered in the Ravensbrück concentration camp on October 12, 1940 with the reason for arrest as " anti-social "; On a transport list made on November 30, 1940, the note "lesbian" was noted in addition to the reason for detention. Using the example of the Würzburg resistance fighter Ilse Totzke, the American historian Laurie Marhoefer showed that the extent to which these were tolerated often depended on the social capital of homosexual women and men. A detailed comparison of the living situation of lesbian women with that of gay men during the National Socialist era was compiled by Joachim Müller in 2007 . Anna Hájková has compiled a bibliography with PDFs on the situation of lesbian and transgender women under National Socialism.

In Austria and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia , the situation was different: Here, Section 129 (1) b of the Austrian Criminal Code (which also applied in post-1918 Czechoslovakia ), which made homosexual acts irrespective of gender punishable, remained Connection provisionally in force. In the National Socialist Penal Code planned for the entire Reich, the Committee for the Approximation of German Criminal Laws for lesbian love "no punishment in prospect". On March 31, 1942, Roland Freisler, State Secretary in the Reich Ministry of Justice, finally instructed the OLG presidents and attorneys general to “no longer punish lesbian love (applies to the Ostmark)”. The court judgments against women examined by Claudia Schoppmann on the basis of this paragraph remained insignificant in number and sentence, mostly not even the minimum sentence of the legal text was imposed and the sentence was suspended. During the Austrian National Socialist era, women made up around five percent of those convicted of Section 129. Angela Mayer and Sylvia Köchl have shown that lesbian women were committed to concentration camps following a conviction under Section 129.

After 1945

The National Socialist legislation regarding § 175 in the Federal Republic of Germany lasted until 1969 ; in the GDR , a decision by the Supreme Court of the GDR returned to the version before 1935 in 1950. In 1968, § 175 was abolished in the course of a criminal law reform in the GDR and replaced by Paragraph 151 for the protection of minors, which provided for an age of consent of 18 for homosexual contacts. In December 1988, the minimum age of consent for heterosexuality and homosexuality was made the same in the GDR. In the Federal Republic of Germany such equality did not come about until 1994, when the remaining youth protection paragraph 175 was deleted from the penal code . In 2002, the German Bundestag apologized to the homosexual victims of the Nazi regime and, with an amendment to the National Socialist Repeal Act, symbolically repealed all judgments under Section 175 from the Nazi era. The judgments according to § 175a only came to a half-hearted solution: here only the judgments according to paragraph 4 (prostitution) were overturned.

Since not only prosecution, but above all social ostracism, continued, many homosexual victims remained silent about the reason for their imprisonment. Few were able to talk about it more or less openly, so that many fates were never exactly known.

Hugo Walleitner (1909–1982) from Bad Ischl self-published the book Zebra in 1947 . A factual report from the concentration camp with 32 self-drawn illustrations. He was forced to keep silent about why he was abducted. The book also portrays Josef K., who had survived in the concentration camp for six years until 1945. In a series of articles in the gay magazine “Humanitas” published in Hamburg , Leo Clasen (pseudonym: LD Classen von Neudegg ) was the first to publish his memories of the concentration camp imprisonment in Sachsenhausen in 1954/55. In 1969, Harry Schulze (amendment of § 175) under his standard pseudonym Harry Wilde delivered the first literary discussion of the persecution of homosexuals by the Nazi regime with The Fate of the Ostracized . Hans Neumann published the life story of Josef Kohout under the pseudonym Heinz Heger in 1972 (in 1971, Section 129 (1) StG was changed, later Section 209 StGB ). The men with the pink triangle was the first report by gay concentration camp survivors in book form. This was then also translated into several languages. Josef Kohout's Pink Triangle, kept in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , is also one of the last to survive. A more comprehensive historical appraisal of this time only began in the 1980s.

Monuments commemorating the persecution of gay men were created from 1984, initially in the memorials on the grounds of former concentration camps. The first memorial stone made of pink granite in the shape of an angle with the inscription “Dead Beat. Dead hushed up. The homosexual victims of National Socialism. ”Was installed in Mauthausen concentration camp in 1984 ; the idea for this came from HOSI Vienna , which also financed the stone. The first memorial to be realized outside a former concentration camp was the Homomonument in Amsterdam , which was also the first free-standing memorial, i.e. the first whose design went beyond a commemorative plaque. In May 2008, the memorial to homosexuals persecuted under National Socialism was inaugurated in Berlin .

In January 2014 , Tel Aviv became the first Israeli city to receive a memorial for persecuted sexual minorities. The memorial is shaped like a pink corner.

See also

literature

General

  • Ralf Bogen: "Protagonist in the struggle to eradicate homosexuality". In: Ingrid Bauz, Sigrid Brüggemann, Roland Maier (eds.): The Secret State Police in Württemberg and Hohenzollern. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2013, ISBN 978-3-89657-138-0 , pp. 305–321.
  • Günter Grau (Ed.): Homosexuality in the Nazi era. Documents of discrimination and persecution. 2nd, revised edition. Fischer-TB, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-596-15973-3 .
  • Rainer Hoffschildt : The persecution of homosexuals in the Nazi era: Numbers and fates from Northern Germany. Verl. Rosa Winkel , Berlin 1999, ISBN 3-86149-096-X .
  • Olaf Mußmann (edit.): Homosexuals in concentration camps - lectures, scientific conference 12./13. September 1997. Westkreuz-Verlag, Bad Münstereifel 2000, ISBN 3-929592-51-7 .
  • Burkhard Jellonnek, Rüdiger Lautmann (ed.): National Socialist Terror against Homosexuals. Repressed and unpunished . Paderborn 2002, ISBN 3-506-74204-3 . ( online at the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek ).
  • Burkhard Jellonnek: homosexuals under the swastika. The persecution of homosexuals in the Third Reich. Paderborn 1990, ISBN 3-506-77482-4 . ( online at the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek ).
  • Neuengamme Concentration Camp Memorial (Ed.): Persecution of homosexuals under National Socialism. (= Contributions to the history of the National Socialist persecution in Northern Germany. Issue 5). Edition Temmen , Bremen 1999, ISBN 3-86108-738-3 .
  • Rüdiger Lautmann: Seminar Society and Homosexuality. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt 1977, ISBN 3-518-27800-2 . (especially 8th chapter).
  • Rüdiger Lautmann: Categorization in Concentration Camps as a Collective Fate: A Comparison of Homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses and Political Prisoners. In: Journal of Homosexuality . Vol. 19, No. 1, 1990, ISSN  0091-8369 , pp. 67-88.
  • Joachim Müller , Andreas Sternweiler , Schwules Museum Berlin (ed.): Homosexual men in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp . Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-86149-097-8 .
  • Jan-Henrik Peters: Persecuted and Forgotten: Homosexuals in Mecklenburg and Western Pomerania in the Third Reich. Published by Falk Koop on behalf of the state association of lesbians and gays Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania “Gaymeinsam e. V. “Ingo Koch Verlag, Rostock 2004, ISBN 3-937179-95-X .
  • Andreas Pretzel , Gabriele Roßbach; Kulturring in Berlin e. V. (Ed.): "Because of the high penalty to be expected". Persecution of homosexuals in Berlin 1933–1945. Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-86149-095-1 .
  • Bernhard Rosenkranz: Hamburg in a different way. The history of gay life in the Hanseatic city. Hamburg 2005, ISBN 3-925495-30-4 .
  • Wolfram Setz (Ed.): Homosexuality in the GDR. (= Library pink angle. Volume 42). Männerschwarm Verlag, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-935596-42-1 .
  • Anna Maria Sigmund : “We determine sex life!” Sexuality in the 3rd Reich. Heyne, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-453-13728-8 , pp. 179-212: Chap. "Homosexuals as pests of the people".
  • Hans-Georg Stümke , Rudi Finkler: Rosa Winkel, Rosa Lists - Homosexuals and “Healthy People's Sensation” from Auschwitz to today . Rowohlt, Hamburg 1981, ISBN 3-499-14827-7 .
  • Alexander Zinn: The social construction of the homosexual National Socialist. On the genesis and establishment of a stereotype. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main 1997, ISBN 3-631-30776-4 .
  • Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Homosexual men under National Socialism . Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2018, ISBN 9783593508634 .

Paths of life / memory literature

Life situation of lesbians in the time of National Socialism

Movies

Web links

Commons : Persecution of homosexuals in the Holocaust  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Pp. 243-250.
  2. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Pp. 260-265.
  3. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Pp. 265-279.
  4. ↑ Quoted from the Corpus of the Digital Dictionary of the German Language of the 20th Century . See also the reconstruction of the events at that time by Alexander Zinn: The social construction of the homosexual National Socialist . Pp. 125-140.
  5. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Pp. 289-309.
  6. ^ Decree of the Führer on Keeping the SS and Police Clean (November 15, 1941). (PDF; 68 kB)
  7. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Pp. 320-328.
  8. ↑ "Statistisches Reichsamt"
    Jürgen Baumann: Paragraph 175 . Luchterhand, Darmstadt 1968.
    Compiled in: Hans-Georg Stümke, Rudi Finkler: Pink angles, pink lists . Rowohlt TB, July 1985, ISBN 3-499-14827-7 , p. 262.
  9. ^ Wolfgang Wippermann and Michael Burleigh : The racial state. Germany 1933-1945 . Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 186-196; Armin Bergmann: Homosexuality / homosexuals. In: Wolfgang Benz , Hermann Graml and Hermann Weiß (eds.): Encyclopedia of National Socialism . Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1997, p. 518 f.
  10. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Pp. 309-320.
  11. ↑ Philipp Korom, Christian Fleck: Who was persecuted as homosexual? On the importance of socio-structural characteristics in criminal prosecution . In: Cologne Journal for Sociology and Social Psychology : 64 (4) / 2012, pp. 755–782.
  12. ↑ see for example the permanent exhibition “Medicine and Crime” on the infirmary in the Sachsenhausen memorial; see. for details Astrid Ley and Günter Morsch (eds.): Medicine and crime. The infirmary of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp 1936–1945. Berlin 2007 as well as Stefan Heinz and Lukas Bergmann: persecution of “enemies of the people” as a state mandate. The "Reich Center for Combating Homosexuality and Abortion"
  13. ↑ lambdanachrichten.at
  14. ↑ rosa-winkel.de
  15. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Pp. 309-320.
  16. ^ Hans Günter Hockerts : The morality trials against Catholic religious and priests 1936/1937. A study on the National Socialist rule technique and the church struggle . Matthias Grünewald Verlag, Mainz 1971.
  17. ↑ Alexander Zinn: “Removed from the people's body”? Homosexual men under National Socialism . Campus, Frankfurt / Main 2018, ISBN 978-3-593-50863-4 .
  18. ↑ Federal Agency for Civic Education: Queer History and the Holocaust | bpb. Retrieved September 18, 2018 .
  19. ↑ Claudia Schoppmann: 'Love was punished with corporal punishment:' On the situation of lesbian women in the concentration camps . In: Contributions to the history of the National Socialist persecution in Northern Germany . Persecution of Homosexuals under National Socialism, No. 5 . Hamburg 1999, p. 14-21 .
  20. ^ Claudia Schoppmann: Elsa Conrad - Margarete Rosenberg - Mary Pünjer - Henny Schermann: Four portraits . In: Insa Eschebach (Ed.): Homophobia and Deviance. Female and male homosexuality under National Socialism . Metropol, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-86331-066-0 , pp. 104-108 .
  21. ↑ Laurie Marhoefer: Lesbianism, Transvestitism, and the Nazi State: A Microhistory of a Gestapo Investigation, 1939-1943 . In: The American Historical Review . tape 121 , no. 4 , October 2016, ISSN  0002-8762 , p. 1167–1195 , doi : 10.1093 / ahr / 121.4.1167 ( oup.com [accessed September 18, 2018]).
  22. ↑ Joachim Müller: Comparability of the life situation of lesbian women with the life situation of gay men under National Socialism (and after 1945). Berlin 2007
  23. ↑ Joachim Müller: "There was no nationwide organized persecution of lesbians" , accessed on April 7, 2017.
  24. ↑ Bibliography on lesbian and trans women in Nazi Germany . In: Sexuality, Holocaust, Stigma: Taking Stock . October 22, 2017 ( sexualityandholocaust.com [accessed September 18, 2018]).
  25. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? P. 283 f.
  26. ^ Claudia Schoppmann : Prohibited conditions. Woman's love 1938–1945 . Querverlag, Berlin 1999.
  27. ↑ Niko Wahl: persecution and deprivation of property of homosexuals on the territory of the Republic of Austria during the Nazi era.
  28. ↑ Angela Mayer: Schwachsinn higher degree ". On the persecution of lesbian women in Austria during the Nazi era . In: Burkhard Jellonek and Rüdiger Lautmann (eds.): National Socialist Terror against Homosexuals . Schöningh, Paderborn 2002, ISBN 978-3-506- 74204-9 , p. 83-93 .
  29. ↑ Sylvia Köche: We trust in the subversive power of art. "Conflicts over monuments for gays and lesbians persecuted under National Socialism . In: Lisa Bolyos and Katharina Morawek (eds.): Dictator doll destroyed, little damage. Art and historical politics in post-Nazism . Mandelbaum , Vienna 2012, ISBN 978-3-85476-391-8 , pp. 316 f .
  30. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Pp. 500-510.
  31. ↑ Alexander Zinn: "Removed from the people's body"? Pp. 500-510.
  32. ^ Eberhard Zastrau : prisoner functionaries with the pink triangle in the infirmary of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp ( memorial from April 22, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) April 22, 2007.
  33. ↑ Reprint of Clasens article by Verlag rosa Winkel: Klappentexte Nr. 4 "Die", Berlin 1984.
  34. ↑ Bernd-Ulrich Hergemöller: Man for Man - A biographical lexicon. Suhrkamp Taschenbuch, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-518-39766-4 , "Schulze, Harry (" Wilde, Harry ")", p. 650.
  35. ↑ Andreas Brunner , Ines Rieder , Nadja Schefzig, Hannes Sulzenbacher , Niko Wahl: Secret thing: live - gays and lesbians in Vienna in the 20th century. Löcker Verlag, Vienna 2005, ISBN 3-85409-435-3 , p. 166 f.
  36. ↑ Memorial for homosexual Nazi victims inaugurated in Tel Aviv ( Memento from January 10, 2014 in the Internet Archive )