Human experiment

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A human experiment , also known as a human experiment , is a scientific experiment on one or more people.

Human testing in clinical trials plays an important role in the approval of new drugs . There, tests on human volunteers are at the bottom of the approval process , as findings from animal experiments can only be transferred to humans to a limited extent. Medical experiments on humans are carried out on volunteers in our society.

In history there are numerous examples of attempts against the will of people or without their knowledge or after consciously insufficient information.

A special case is the medical self-experiment in which z. B. a medical professional tested the effect and possible danger of a new substance on himself. In the pre-industrial times, this was an important method for doctors and researchers to further develop medicine.

Today's medical research

In the case of new drug approvals , human experiments are permitted and prescribed before a drug can be traded on a larger scale on the general pharmaceutical market.

Since the test subject, a person, is viewed as an object in a human experiment, it is not a question of a scientific term that can be used without judgment, but its use must be viewed in the social, especially criminal , ethical and historical context. Is ethically and legally recognized generally a human experiment, when the insight enabled subject to the experiment voluntarily agrees and full of the possible consequences cleared was. However, this is only a first, in no way sufficient condition (see immorality ).

Human experiments are generally considered necessary for medical advancement. For example, in the field of infectious diseases, experimental infections of volunteers with influenza viruses and plasmodia are carried out in order to develop drugs and vaccines against viral flu and malaria.

Ethical and criminal issues

A moral problem is the fact that almost exclusively people with low incomes are prepared to endanger their health in phase I clinical trials , as the expense allowance is sufficient motivation for them alone . If the clinical phase I studies were actually carried out without great financial incentives, i.e. ideally, a deficiency situation similar to that of blood donation or organ donation would arise and the new development would be slowed down considerably.

In a gray area there are currently cases related to human experimentation, in which confidants, often doctors, people in extreme situations, in particular soldiers or competitive athletes (see doping ), administer active substances without precisely explaining their effects or their danger or side effects not being adequately established are. If this happens systematically, the limit to (uninformed) human experimentation may be exceeded. The “consent” often obtained in such cases is usually characterized by incomplete information for the person concerned and special dependencies, from self-deception to coercion. It is also difficult to distinguish it from attempted healing. In addition to the planning of the study and the recruitment of subjects, the publication of the study is also subject to implicit and explicit medical ethical norms.

Under certain circumstances, the offense of bodily harm in a human attempt is fulfilled (see also § 223 and the following in the German StGB ).

The unsolicited and uncontrollable introduction of new technologies (e.g. mobile telephony ) or genetically modified food is described by their critics as a human experiment.

There are few sources of human experiments that take place in the context of armaments research and include tests for the toxicity of chemical weapons or the infectivity of biological weapons , as well as the effects of radioactivity , ultrasound or strong electromagnetic fields on the human body. Actual actual warfare also has elements of human experimentation if the effects, side effects and effectiveness of new types of weapon systems on own and opposing combatants and civilians are not sufficiently known or are even consciously tested (e.g. uranium ammunition ).

Since the Nuremberg Trials , international guidelines for the implementation and permissibility of human experiments have been drawn up. The changing knowledge and possibilities of medicine as well as the public debates about its legitimacy have led to regularly revised versions of ethical standards. In particular, the current bioethics debate on human genetic experiments has now made the overall cultural relevance of the topic clear.

Protection against unlawful human attempts

Human experiments were and are carried out particularly frequently on people who can hardly defend themselves against them and / or are in a particular situation of constraint or emergency. These are e.g. B. Prisoners , seriously ill, mentally ill, disabled or other persons exposed to compulsory administration.

Protection against human experiments concerns elementary human rights such as the right to physical integrity . The Alliance for Human Research Protection is an organization that advocates the human rights of people exposed to human experiments.

History of human experiments

Medical experiments on humans have been handed down since antiquity , were a companion to modern changes in medicine after the Middle Ages and were first the subject of public criticism in the 19th century. They played a special role in the euthanasia and racial hygiene programs during the National Socialist era . This resulted in a large number of state-organized and extensively documented series of tests on people whose lives were considered “worthless”.

prehistory

Archaeological finds from prehistoric times confirm medical interventions on the human body, such as trepanation , but it is assumed that the procedure was intended to be more mythical-religious - and therefore pre-scientific. In addition, it is often difficult to clearly differentiate medical interventions from ritual offerings.

Antiquity

If one wants to classify only scientifically conducted experiments under medical human experiments, according to today's view, antiquity marks around 500 BC. The historical starting point. The medical model of antiquity was the humoral pathology of Hippocrates . This “four juices doctrine” found its counterpart in the four elements doctrine and manifested itself for many centuries in the cultural superstructure of both the Greeks and the Romans. Accordingly, all living things in nature corresponded to one another. So it came about that the test results of disease processes in animals were transferred analogously to humans. For a long time there was therefore no need for experiments on humans and they were limited to animal experiments and necropsies . The ethical guidelines of the Hippocratic Oath probably also led to restraint in matters of human experiments.

It was not until Aristotle that the view was handed down that examinations on living people are also necessary to understand diseases, since the dead body changes so much that the results cannot be transferred to living people. The first systematic vivisections probably began in Hellenistic Alexandria towards the end of the 4th century BC. Chr.

Four centuries later, Roman historians accused the two Alexandrian scientists, Herophilus and Eristratus, of dissecting up to 600 people alive. Presumably, these experiments served to better understand human anatomy .

A head of state in Pergamon also appeared in 137 BC. To have used criminals to study the effects of poisonous plants.

There are also reports of experiments by Roman doctors: For example, a Roman document from the second century AD has survived in which a doctor promised to save one of two hopelessly sick twins if he was allowed to vivise the other.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

With the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century and the growing dominance of Christianity , the natural sciences in Europe came to a standstill for many centuries. While individual Christian theologians rejected ancient medicine as pagan, others, including Cassiodorus , Bishop Isidore of Seville and the author of the defense in the Lorsch Pharmacopoeia (around 795), maintained medical knowledge as a duty of charity. With a few exceptions, doctors were monks or priests who were more likely to be studying than practicing medicine, as they had to reckon with excommunication when practicing their art . The ancient humoral pathology, which inseparably linked man and the cosmos, remained part of the Christian view of the world and of man. The reluctance towards sections was strong until the 13th century.

After the plague epidemic was helpless in the 14th century , the Renaissance began with a return to secular medical research. New ethical demands were placed on doctors, as formulated , for example, in the Constitutio Criminalis Charles V from 1532 . They underlined the responsibility of the doctor for the negligent and willful homicide of patients. Vivisection, however, remained prohibited.

Attempts on death row prisoners were allowed and common in some places. The effects of plant toxins and the testing of possible antidotes were mostly examined. For example, an experiment from the 16th century has been handed down in which the high toxicity of the blue monkshood was proven.

Modern times up to the Prussian order in 1900

In the middle of the 18th century, medical human experiments in Prussia became “the dominant empirical evidence ... which has shaped the knowledge of modern medicine to the present day.” With state approval and support, the “access to socially declassed groups” was approved and “took place now also on living people to a previously unknown extent. ”Promoted by scientific racism , there had previously been an expansion in the“ work ”on corpses of socially declassed people, who served as objects of knowledge. The focus here was the Theatrum Anatomicum of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, a collection of specimens that served as a spectacle for the elites.

As with the preparation , “people from the poor population - inmates of prisons, insane asylums, birthing, infirmary, orphans - and poor houses - as well as from colonial areas ... served as objects of medical knowledge, without their reification the development of modern medicine of the 19th and 20th century would have been unthinkable. "

With the breakthrough of the modern scientific method at the beginning of the 19th century, the experiment on humans gained a new meaning: Now systematic medical research could be achieved much faster with it, since it could be used to scientifically test drugs and therapies for effectiveness. In the unbroken progressive thinking of the 19th century, the researching bourgeois elite hardly raised the moral question of the permissibility of human experiments on the meansless or otherwise without rights. Claude Bernard , who is considered the founder of experimental physiology , set up a simple rule in 1865: “Of the experiments that can be carried out on humans, those that can only harm are forbidden, those that are harmless are allowed, those that can be of use. "

Inspired by the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch , the heyday of bacteriology began in the second half of the 19th century . The causative agents of many infectious diseases were gradually discovered. Especially with the pathogens of syphilis and gonorrhea (the "gonorrhea") people were infected on a trial basis in order to find out whether the bacteria could cause the original symptoms again.

The experiments, mostly carried out on destitute patients, have been increasingly publicly discussed in Germany since around 1890. The later Nobel Peace Prize laureate Ludwig Quidde publicly criticized human experiments in a liberal daily newspaper. A scandal that he uncovered about the dermatologist Albert Neisser prompted the Prussian Ministry of Education to issue guidelines on scientific experiments for the first time on December 29, 1900 , which were adopted in many German states.

20th and 21st centuries

Germany

Imperial times

The Prussian decree - albeit unique for its time - could not effectively prevent further scandals. For example, in 1910 Paul Ehrlich had arsphenamine for the treatment of syphilis tried out on several hundred patients before it was released, without first obtaining their consent. In 1912, the Berlin tuberculosis researcher Friedrich Franz Friedmann had 53 children in an orphanage in Berlin vaccinated without first obtaining the consent of their relatives or the approval of the superior authorities.

Weimar Republic

Towards the end of the Weimar Republic , the Reichstag member and Social Democrat Julius Moses pointed out numerous human experiments published in specialist journals. Under the heading “100 rats and 20 children! Working children as experimental rabbits. ”In 1928 he published a polemical indictment against the experiments of a clinic doctor in Vorwärts , thereby sparking a public scandal. The protest against the incapacitating conditions in clinical research during the Weimar Republic and Moses' commitment to the codification of human experiments led in 1930 to the development of guidelines for novel therapeutic treatments and for scientific experiments on humans. Even before these guidelines were published, there was a vaccination accident in Lübeck in 1930 following BCG vaccination, as a result of which 77 children died of tuberculosis .

Time of National Socialism and the Second World War

Supported by the National Socialist racial ideology, the Wehrmacht , the German Ahnenerbe Research Foundation , the German Research Foundation , various universities and the pharmaceutical industry, concentration camp doctors and medical practitioners in particular carried out numerous experiments on people in closed sanatoriums without their voluntary consent , with the approval of the Reich Research Council . The pediatrician and lecturer at the Vienna University Children's Hospital Elmar Türk (see Am Spiegelgrund ) tested the reliability of a vaccine against tuberculosis in 1943 . To do this, he previously infected children with tubercle bacilli before vaccinating a control group and not another. More information can be found in the articles on the Nuremberg Doctors Trial and on the human experiments in National Socialist concentration camps .

GDR

In the GDR, human experiments in the form of drug studies were carried out on behalf of western pharmaceutical companies. According to the information, the Mirror published in May 2013, East German hospitals were at 50 conducted over 600 drug trials with 50,000 patients, including at the Lung Clinic Lostau in Magdeburg with the antihypertensive spirapril on behalf of Sandoz and at the University Hospital Charité with erythropoietin in 30 premature babies on behalf of Boehringer Mannheim .

In 2016, a research report was published by medical historians in Berlin. He found that the drug trials in the GDR were part of large-scale international studies and that the methods and procedures used in the GDR corresponded to the standards of the time that were in force in the Federal Republic of Germany. The patients were informed about the tests and there was even a great interest on the part of the patients in participating in these studies, because many were hoping for new and effective drugs. The report states that in the course of the historical review “no systematic legal violations and no violations of ethical standards were found”.

A large-scale human experiment was compulsory state doping in competitive GDR sports . Underage athletes were also doped without their knowledge. The athletes not only received doping drugs, but also had to take drugs that were not approved for human use without their knowledge. About 12,000 athletes were affected by compulsory doping, of which about 2000 physical or psychological consequences are expected, and several athletes have died as a result of the damage.

Federal Republic of Germany

In 2016, the pharmacist Sylvia Wagner came across evidence in various specialist journals and company archives that in the Federal Republic of Germany up to around 1975 extensive series of experiments were carried out on children and adolescents with unapproved drugs, without the consent of their parents or . in children and infants without legal guardians, often those who were forcibly withdrawn from their young mothers, sometimes with and sometimes without the consent of the authorities. Various state youth welfare offices , z. B. in North Rhine-Westphalia , as well as providers of homes for this group of people have announced clarification for the future; individual companies, e.g. B. Merck have confirmed that they still have the relevant documents in the archive and want to cooperate with today's research. Other companies state that their data can no longer be found, e.g. B. Behringwerke , or they refuse to provide information at all; Wagner also mentions Janssen , Pfizer , Schering and Verla-Pharm Tutzing in her previously known companies . The doctors who carried out such series of tests are hardly tangible. Previously known by name doctors are already in the era of National Socialism relevant active Friedrich Panse , the Nazi doctor Hans Heinze in Wunstorf, and Franz Redeker , "Erbgesundheitsrichter" under the Nazis and later president of the Federal Health Office. Panse, who was well known for his deeds before 1945, who had constantly led lawsuits, received express approval from the NRW authorities in 1966 for human experiments with neuroleptics on defenseless people in the “Neu-Düsselthal” home.

Wagner's investigations, which should lead to a doctorate, have not yet been completed. It shows the state of research at the end of 2016 as follows:

"It was common nationwide practice to administer vaccines and psychotropic drugs to minors ... I have so far found evidence for more than fifty test series ... Thousands of infants and older children have been victims of these tests."

- Sylvia Wagner, pharmacist, according to Westdeutsche Zeitung, October 21, 2016

The verifiably affected persons were children in a home in a difficult situation, especially mentally, or children without a family. According to Wagner's preliminary publications, politicians have stated that a compensation fund will probably have to be set up for the victims. In North Rhine-Westphalia the "Kastanienhof" infant home on Petersstrasse in Krefeld has been known to be the perpetrator , and the "Krefeld Women's Association for Children and Elderly Welfare " is the sponsor; the V. Bodelschwinghschen Anstalten Bethel , which have already admitted such human rights violations; the child and adolescent psychiatry Süchteln , sponsor LVR-Klinik Viersen ; the child and adolescent psychiatry in Wunstorf under SS man Hans Heinze, today responsible for the Hannover Region Clinic , KRH; the Neu-Düsselthal children's home from the Graf Recke Foundation , now located in Wittlaer , and the Franz Sales House in Essen.

In 1957, the Federal Health Office commissioned Redeker to conduct a series of tests in an infant home to test non-approved smallpox vaccines using spinal cord puncture on babies.

France

France deliberately exposed conscripts to radiation from 1960 to 1966. "According to the Defense Ministry , 150,000 civilians and soldiers were involved in the 210 nuclear tests in the Algerian Sahara and Polynesia."

Japan

During the Imperial Japanese occupation of Manchuria, unit 731 of the Japanese army carried out human experiments.

Switzerland

A total of ten Swiss psychiatry clinics were involved in drug tests between the 1950s and 1970s:

Over 4,200 patients were affected. Most of the drugs were provided by the Basel pharmaceutical industry. To this day, neither Roche nor Novartis - the successor company to Geigy, Ciba and Sandoz - know how many drugs they had tested during this time.

Soviet Union

During the period of Stalinism under stood Lawrenti Beria the laboratory no. 12 of the line of toxicology Grigory Mairanovsky , in which the development was driven by toxins using human experiments on prisoners.

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

As early as the 1920s, but especially in the 1950s and 1960s, more than 20,000 human experiments with various chemical warfare agents were carried out at the southern English research facility, Porton Down , including mustard gas , nerve agents and LSD . Many of them believed that they were involved in the development of a new drug for the common cold. In May 1953, 20-year-old RAF member Ronald Maddison died after sarin was dripped on his forearm. Nevertheless, the experiments with nerve agents continued until at least 1958. Around 25 people are said to have died as a result of the late effects of the experiments in Porton Down.

In 1967 scientists from Porton Down in a London hospital infected patients with leukemia or terminal cancer with their consent with Kyasanur forest fever and Langat virus (which is related to the TBE virus ). Two of them died of encephalitis . Officially, the viruses should be tried out as a cure for the patients, but the Kyasanur forest fever was at that time in Fort Detrick , the US counterpart to Porton Down, considered as a possible bioweapon.

United States of America

The CIA conducted in their project MKULTRA since the 1950s systematic human experiments - u. a. with LSD - through. Numerous test persons suffered severe physical and psychological damage in the experiments, in some cases even death. The United States conducted volunteer trials in Operation Whitecoat between 1954 and 1973 .

The US Army is accused of targeting soldiers and even parts of the civilian population in desert states such as Nevada and Utah during nuclear weapon tests.

The USA carried out secret human experiments on Guatemalans (so-called syphilis human experiments in Guatemala ) and American blacks in Alabama (so-called Tuskegee syphilis study ).

In 2013 it became known that in the USA the military and secret services had systematically exposed their own soldiers to poisons, gases, drugs and psychological warfare agents, including LSD, sarin , mustard gas , BZ , VX , barbiturates , amphetamines and chlorpromazine, since the end of the First World War . There were no follow-up examinations; only 320 veterans were screened for a study of LSD experiments in the late 1970s; one in five reported problems such as depression and anxiety. Some victims have sued the US; they are represented by the well-known attorney Gordon Erspamer.

During the experiments with mustard gas and lewisite in the 1940s, experiments were also carried out specifically to determine what effects these skin warfare agents have on people of different races. For this purpose, test groups of African Americans , Japanese Americans and Puerto Ricans were formed; white Americans served as the control group.

It was not until 1975 - after almost six decades - that Congress stopped human experiments. Around 100,000 soldiers were the object of the tests.

Declaration of Helsinki

The currently accepted recommendations for physicians working in biomedical research on humans correspond to the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki .

See also

literature

  • Anna Bergmann : Fatal human experiments in colonial areas. The leprosy research of the doctor Eduard Arning in Hawaii 1883–1886. In: Ulrich van der Heyden, Joachim Zeller (ed.) … Power and share in world domination. Berlin and German colonialism. Unrast-Verlag, Münster 2005, ISBN 3-89771-024-2
  • Wolfgang U. Eckart : Medicine in the Nazi dictatorship - ideology, practice, consequences. Böhlau, Cologne 2012, ISBN 978-3-412-20847-9 .
  • Barbara Elkeles: The moral discourse on the medical human experiment between 1835 and the First World War. Habilitation thesis, Hannover (1991)
  • Heiner Fangerau : ethics of medical research. In: Stefan Schulz, Klaus Steigleder, Heiner Fangerau and Norbert Paul (eds.): History, theory and ethics of medicine. An introduction. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2006, pp. 283-300
  • Uwe Fröhlich: Research against your will? Legal problems of biomedical research with persons incapable of giving consent. Springer, 1998, ISBN 3-540-65679-0 (= medical law series)
  • Andrew Goliszek: In the Name of Science: A History of Secret Programs, Medical Research, and Human Experimentation. St. Martin's Press 2003, ISBN 0-312-30356-4
  • Jack Kevorkian : A brief history of experimentation on condemned and executed humans. In: Journal of the American Medical Association . Volume 77, 1985, pp. 215-226
  • Ernst Klee : Auschwitz, Nazi medicine and its victims. Fishing Paperback, 2001, ISBN 3-596-14906-1
  • Freya Klier : The Rabbits from Ravensbrück. Medical experiments on women during the Nazi era . 2nd Edition. Droemer Knaur, Munich 1995, ISBN 3-426-77162-4 .
  • Susan Lederer: Subjected to science. Human experimentation in America before the Second World War. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press (1995)
  • Hans-Dieter Lippert and Wolfgang Eisenmenger (Hrsg.): Research on people. The protection of people - the freedom of the researcher. Springer, 1999, ISBN 3-540-66454-8 (Medical Law Series)
  • Nicolas Pethes, Birgit Griesecke, Marcus Krause and Katja Sabisch (eds.): Menschenversuche: Eine Anthologie 1750–2000. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2008
  • Andreas Jens Reuland: Human experiments in the Weimar Republic. Norderstedt, Books on Demand GmbH (2004) ISBN 3-8334-1823-0
  • Volker Roelcke , Giovanni Maio (Ed.): Twentieth century ethics of human subjects research. Historical perspectives on values, practices, and regulations. Steiner, Stuttgart 2004
  • Volkmar Sigusch : Medical experiments on humans. The example of psychosurgery . Supplement to AS 17. Yearbook for Critical Medicine. Argument publisher. Frankfurt. 1977. 31 pages. ISBN 3-920037-85-5
  • Elke Tashiro: The scales of Venus. Venerological experiments on humans between progress and morality. Husum 1991
  • Wolfgang Weyers: The abuse of man. An illustrated history of dubious medical experimentation. New York 2003.
  • Allen C. Cheng: "Self-experimentation" in vulnerable populations. In: MJA - The Medical Journal of Australia. Volume 178, No. 9, 2003, p. 471

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. WG Metzger, H.‐J. Ehni, PG Kremsner, BG Mordmüller: Experimental infections in humans — historical and ethical reflections . In: Tropical Medicine & International Health . tape 24 , no. December 12 , 2019, ISSN  1360-2276 , p. 1384-1390 , doi : 10.1111 / tmi.13320 .
  2. Heiner Fangerau: Ethics of Medical Research. In: Schulz, Steigleder, Fangerau, Paul (ed.): History, theory and ethics of medicine. An introduction. Suhrkamp: Frankfurt 2006, pp. 283-300
  3. ^ About the Alliance for Human Research Protection - AHRP .
  4. Anna Bergmann (2005): Deadly human experiments in colonial areas. The leprosy research of the doctor Eduard Arning in Hawaii 1883–1886. In: Ulrich van der Heyden, Joachim Zeller (eds.) "... power and share in world domination." Berlin and German colonialism. Page 143
  5. Cf. also Barbara Elkeles: Medical human experiments towards the end of the 19th century and the Neisser case. Justification and criticism of a scientific method. In: Medical History Journal. Volume 20, 1985, pp. 135-148.
  6. Ernst Klee: German consumption of human time, November 28, 1997, accessed January 30, 2015
  7. ^ Susann Gasse: Human experiments in concentration camps, Jewish history and culture, accessed January 27, 2015
  8. Sven Felix Kellerhoff : Test method gassed: How the Nazis rehearsed mass murder in Brandenburg , Welt, January 10, 2011, accessed February 16, 2015
  9. ^ Gerhard Baader : Human experiments in concentration camps in medicine in the Third Reich , Deutscher Ärzte-Verlag, 2nd edition 1992, ISBN 3-7691-0262-2
  10. ^ Ernst Klee : German Medicine in the Third Reich. Careers before and after 1945. S. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-10-039310-4 , p. 111 f.
  11. Western pharmaceutical companies conducted human experiments in the GDR. On: spiegel.de from May 12, 2013
  12. Western pharmaceutical companies tested drugs en masse on Eastern patients. On: spiegel.de from March 16, 2016
  13. Abused for medals - doping and human experiments in GDR sport. ( Memento from June 20, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) On: wdr.de , October 30, 2015
  14. 10.5 million for doping victims? On: faz.net from October 4, 2015
  15. ^ All information from Westdeutsche Zeitung : Scandal about drug tests , by Michael Passon, October 21, 2016, pp. 1–3; as well as WDR1 , WDR-aktuell: Bethel admits drug trials , October 20, 2016
  16. See Nuclear Weapons Test # Compensation for Victims
  17. France deliberately irradiated soldiers , FAZ , February 17, 2010, p. 5
  18. Experiments on patients: drug tests on psychiatric patients had System In srf.ch , January 18, 2018, accessed on January 20, 2018.
  19. Magaly Tornay: Access to the I: psychoactive substances and concepts of people in Switzerland, 1945 to 1980, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016, ISBN 978-3-16-154279-4 .
  20. Michail Sergejewitsch Voslensky : The secret is revealed. Moscow archives tell. Pp. 56-58, Langen Müller 1995, ISBN 3-7844-2536-4
  21. ^ Donald Rayfield Stalin and his executioners , Karl Blessing Verlag, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-89667-181-2
  22. ^ Robert Harris , Jeremy Paxman: The silent death - The history of biological and chemical weapons , Heyne Verlag , 2002, p. 75f.
  23. ^ Rob Evans, The past Porton Down can't hide , The Guardian , May 6, 2004
  24. ^ A b Peter Michalski: Deadly Experiments , Welt am Sonntag , August 26, 2001
  25. a b Tom Levine: British Army allegedly informed soldiers wrongly: Investigations into tests with poison gas Sarin , Berliner Zeitung , 23 August 1999
  26. Jump up ↑ Robert Harris , Jeremy Paxman: The silent death - The history of biological and chemical weapons , Heyne Verlag , 2002, p. 279
  27. Porton Down death inquest opens , BBC news , May 5, 2004
  28. MoD tests on humans 'unethical' , BBC news , July 14, 2006
  29. Hubert Erb: Porton Down Syndrome is catching up with Great Britain , Heise online , August 27, 2001
  30. ^ Justine Picardie: The Toxic Avenger , The Independent , September 30, 1995
  31. The protocol of a fatal experiment with a mescaline infusion from 1953 by E. Koch, M. Wech: alias Artichoke . Goldmann, 2004, p. 136 .
  32. spiegel.de July 10, 2013: Drug trials on US soldiers: Troop in a frenzy
  33. ^ Caitlin Dickerson, Secret World War II Chemical Experiments Tested Troops By Race , National Public Radio , June 22, 2015