Indenture

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Indenture (English indenture , French engagisme ) is a form of contract bondage that occurs mainly in the English legal system of the 16th to 18th centuries . The indentured servant (literally "toothed" servant; meaning: servant with a toothed temporary contract or contract servant for a period of time ) was a contracted worker who worked for another person or company for a certain period of time, often without receiving wages. In return, he received accommodation, food, training or transport to another country (e.g. to the colonies). After the worker had worked the time specified in the contract - traditionally seven years - he was free to set up a farm himself or to pursue his own trade. Many penniless colonists from Europe signed such contracts to finance the expensive passage from Europe to the New World.

Indentured labor referred to the trade with workers from the South Pacific and Asia that took place in the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century for contract labor, mostly in plantations in Queensland , Fiji , Samoas , Peru and Oʻahu . Questionable practices such as blackbirding or pen trading in the recruitment process and the treatment of workers at their destinations brought these work obligations close to slavery .

term

The term indenture is derived from the Middle English or Latin term indenture of retainer - a contract in duplicate on the same sheet of paper, with the two copies cut apart in a zigzag pattern ( charter partita ). Because of the resulting tooth pattern (in DENT ure), the two parts could later be put together. The authenticity of the documents should be able to be confirmed with the agreement.

The contract slavery or indentured servant ( Indentured Servitude ) is in some ways comparable to debt bondage and slavery . During the colonial period, the indenture degenerated into a specifically colonial legal form as an apprenticeship or service contract - more precisely to a form of debt bondage, which gave plantation owners almost unlimited power over the contractual partner over a period of many years. There have been cases where debt servants have been exploited by their employer while on duty. Such a possibility could arise, for example, if the indentured servant urgently needed certain goods or services. If they could not afford these goods because of their continued lack of means or because they were too expensive, the employer offered them what they needed in return for an extension of the contract period. Such goods could, for example, be medicines and services such as medical treatment.

The Historical Dictionary of Oceania describes the practice of indentured labor in a generalized way under Labor Trade . This is:

"... the system of indentured labor, developed as a scaled-down but legal replacement of slave labor ..."
"... the system of contract labor, developed as a weakened but legal substitute for slave labor ..."

Indentured labor can also be translated into German as a work obligation .

distribution

Caribbean

Most of the European settlers who immigrated to the Caribbean in the 16th and 17th centuries came as indentured servants . Common folk, mostly young men with dreams of land ownership and quick prosperity, actually sold years of their freedom in exchange for crossing the islands. The landowners on the islands paid the crossing of the servants ( servants ) and provided during working hours for room and board. The servant then had to work in the fields of the landowner (master, lord) for the term of the contract, usually seven years. During the term of the contract, the servant was considered the property of the master. He could be sold or given away, and could not marry without the Lord's permission. A servant was not normally allowed to buy or sell goods. In contrast to an African slave, however, he was allowed to own personal property. He was also allowed to go to a local judge if he was mistreated by his master. At the end of the contractually stipulated period of service, the servant was released and he was paid a hand money ( freedom dues ). Instead of money, he could be given a piece of land or a certain amount of sugar. This gave the servant the opportunity to become an independent farmer or free laborer.

This form of bondage was a normal part of English and Irish society in the 17th century. Many Irish were also taken hostage and deported to Barbados. This gave rise to the term barbadosed , which describes such actions. People who happened to these things, were Redlegs (Rotbeine) called. Many indentured servants were abducted to the Caribbean by the English between 1649 and 1655 during Oliver Cromwell's campaigns in Ireland and Scotland.

After 1660, fewer and fewer indentured servants came to the Caribbean from Europe. Instead, black slaves now had to do the hard field work. Dismissed servants, which some mornings ( acres were) land given, could not stand against the large sugar plantations in the competition. Hundreds of acres were required to be profitable. In addition, many potential servants were deterred by the rumors of the masters' atrocities against the black slaves. The islands themselves also became death traps for the white farmhands because of many contagious diseases. Yellow fever, malaria, and diseases brought with them by the African slaves resulted in between 33 and 50 percent of servants dying before being released during the 17th century.

When slavery was banned in the British Empire in 1838, the plantation owners again turned to debt bondage to meet their needs for cheap labor. These servants came from different parts of the world, including China and Portugal , but also from Bremen and the Weser Uplands , from where around 1000 workers set out for Jamaica . Most of the servants came from India. The institute of Indentured Servitude was only banned in 1917. As a result, residents with Indian ancestry form the absolute majority in Guyana , the relative majority in Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname, and a significant minority in Jamaica .

North America

Contract dated 1738 in which Henry Mayer signed up for three years as a laborer in the service of Abraham Hestant of Bucks County , Pennsylvania.

In North American history, employers paid for European workers to cross the Atlantic Ocean. In return, they bought the labor contracts they held from the ship owners. Here, too, the servants had committed themselves to work for a certain number of years. The employer's performance could also consist of vocational training, for example training as a blacksmith. During the 17th century, most white workers in Maryland and Virginia came from England as temporary servants. Their masters were obliged to feed them, clothe them and accommodate them. The servant's working conditions were often those of an apprentice who was also contractually bound to his master and owed hard, unpaid labor while doing his time. After the contract period expired, the debtor got a set of new clothes and was acquitted.

Slavery on time ( indentured servitude ) was a method to rapidly increase the number of inhabitants and immigrants in the British colonies, especially since only a limited amount of convicted forced laborers stood for shipment available. The dangerous crossing over the Atlantic also cost many lives due to accidents and illnesses. The temporary servants were such a significant group that they were even mentioned in the United States Constitution . Thus the institute of temporary bondage was still well established around 1780. After a brief hiatus during the American Revolution , it quickly picked up speed.

So the shipowners and captains could make great profits by

“Presented their conditions to the emigrants in Dublin or any other Irish port. Those who could pay for their crossing, usually 100 or 80 livres tournois, could go to America and take up whatever activity suited them. Those who could not pay were transported at the expense of the shipowners, who, in order to recoup their expenses at a profit, announced on arrival that they had brought over artisans, laborers and house servants with whom he had agreed on their own account to perform their services normally 3, 4 or 5 years for men and women and 6 or 8 years for children. "

- Fernand Braudel : The Perspective of the World , London 1984, p. 405 f.

Measured by modern standards acted ship owner as time contract entrepreneur ( contractor ), who loaned his workers. Such circumstances influenced the treatment the captain gave to his precious human cargo. After the temporary bondage was banned, the crossing had to be paid for in advance. This is said to have contributed to the fact that the conditions during the crossing deteriorated so much during the second half of the 19th century that one even spoke of the Irish " coffin ships " .

South Africa

The immigration of agricultural workers from British India to the former British colony of Natal since around 1860 was based on a need for labor in the existing sugar cane plantations that could not be met by the people who were already living there. The model of this labor migration was predominantly based on a five-year contract for indentured labor (contract work). The demographic group of people of Indian origin in South Africa is mainly due to this immigration.

South pacific

Emergence

Recruiting of South Seas Islanders by a European labor service ship crew, drawing by William T. Wawn, July 1892

In the course of abolitionism in the first third of the 19th century in almost all coastal regions of the Pacific, especially the British colonies of these areas, there was a drastic shortage of unskilled and heavy physical labor. In the Australian colonies, the abolition of detention, another source of cheap labor, exacerbated the situation.

The earliest attempts by the Australian entrepreneur and politician Benjamin Boyd to introduce a total of almost 200 residents of the Loyalty and Gilbert Islands between 1847 and 1849 for the purpose of helping sheep shearing on farms in New South Wales failed because the islanders as new cheap competition and the existing one Station staff came to strong hostility. Human rights activists already see the beginnings of a slave trade in the South Seas in this action, because the islanders were not recruited personally, but committed through agreements with the island rulers ("chiefs").

Captain Robert Towns, ca.1794–1873

The agreement of the MP and trader Captain Robert Towns from Sydney marks the official start of the importation of Pacific islanders into the British colony of Queensland . He hired the sandalwood merchant Henry Ross Lewin on Tanna ( New Hebrides ) to recruit residents of this group and the Loyalty Islands as workers for his cotton plantations in Townsvale (today: Veresdale and Gleneagle , both Queensland). The schooner Don Juan was converted for this purpose in 1863 and sent from Brisbane on July 29th .

Henry Ross Lewin received a monthly salary of £ 5 for recruiting services, both at sea and on land. On the return journey to Queensland, one of the recruited islanders died; he was buried on Mud Island (Moreton Bay). The remaining 67, with which Brisbane was reached on August 17, 1863, are historically considered to be the first Pacific contract workers ( indentured laborers ) in the colony of Queensland.

In 1864, the Uncle Tom was the first repatriation of Pacific Islanders who had fulfilled their contract of employment with Robert Towns. The responsibility for landing again on home beaches, as well as that for new recruits, has now been completely transferred to Lewin. In parallel to Uncle Tom , the Black Dog , an " ex-opium runner " , was used for further recruiting .

In the same year, starting from Fiji, recruiting of workers in the Gilbert Islands began . Coming from South America, had the purpose of working heritage creating for Peru the Ellen Elizabeth reached the archipelago in the previous year. On the German side, thirty islanders were invited for the first time in 1864 for a twelve-month contract work on the plantation of the trading house Joh. Ces. Godeffroy & Sohn ( Samoan Islands ). They came from Rarotonga  (Cook Islands).

Scope and period

It is estimated that between the 1860s and 1940s the total number of contract workers of various races in the South Pacific was close to one million, of whom about 600,000 were Asian workers. Between 1884 and 1940 a total of up to 380,000 workers were brought to German New Guinea and 280,000 to British New Guinea . Between 1863 and 1906, around 64,000 South Pacific islanders worked in Queensland, Australia. The plantations on the Solomon Islands employed about 38,000 people between 1913 and 1940.

Queensland
South Sea Islanders workers on a pineapple plantation in Queensland, also called Kanakas , in the 1890s
Routes of worker recruitment, starting from Fiji and Queensland, ca.1860 - ca.1910
Main cultural regions of Oceania : Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia

Between 1863 and 1906, around 64,000 Pacific Islanders were introduced to the British colony or later state of Queensland for work obligations. Around 34,000 came from the Banks Islands , Torres Islands and New Hebrides , around 13,000 from the Solomon and Santa Cruz Islands , around 16,000 from the islands of New Guinea ( New Ireland , New Britain , Duke of York Islands ) and around 1,000 from the loyalty islands . With the arrival of 11,500 islanders within twelve months, imports into Queensland peaked in 1883. The workers were known as Kanakas in colloquial Australian , after the Hawaiian word for man . In total, workers were recruited from over 80 islands, most of them men and boys between the ages of nine and 30, women and girls only to a lesser extent. Blackbirding affected 15 to 20 percent of the initial diaspora in Queensland .

30 percent of the labor force died from common diseases due to a lack of immunity. Contract workers were paid £ 6 a year, which in 2014 would have been around 685 euros. At the turn of the century there were around 2,600 sugar cane plantations in Queensland, the size of which had roughly doubled in the 1890s.

The Pacific Islanders' Fund was intended to finance outstanding wages and repatriation of the islanders. The Australian government embezzled funds worth around 25 million euros (2013) from islanders' families in 85 percent of the cases concerned, thereby financing large parts of the administrative apparatus for the system of indentured labor and the repatriation of islanders as part of its White Australia Policy . The deportations ended in 1906, only a few remained in Australia.

In the 1970s, the descendants of the South Pacific islanders became politically active in Australia and achieved recognition as a national minority in 1994. In 2013 there were around 40,000 members. Their representatives hope for an apology from the Australian government and expect compensation for injustices suffered, including the Blackbirdung , historically misappropriated funds and deportations in the early 20th century. They are supported in this view by the governments of the Solomon Islands and Vanuatus.

Fiji

After Fiji estimated 16,000 Pacific Islander were introduced from other atolls and island groups from 1877 to 1911. Previous transports are documented, but not or only inadequately recorded statistically. For example, a report by the New Zealand governor Sir George Bowen mentions that as early as 1860 most of the ships calling at Fiji from New Zealand were chartered for the transport of so-called labor immigrants. The destination of these journeys is rarely clear. In parallel to the islanders of the South Pacific, up to 60,000 Indian workers were brought to Fiji for contract work in the period from 1879 to 1916.

Samoa

The number of workers transported from the Pacific to the Samoa Islands is only very poorly documented. It can be considered certain that between 1874 and 1877 around 200 and between 1878 and 1881 around 475 islanders from the Gilbert Islands were brought in annually for work on Samoa. The German Trading and Plantation Society of the South Sea Islands in Hamburg ( DHPG ), the successor to the Godeffroyschen trading and plantation operations on Samoa, led around 5,800 islanders as contract workers from the protected area of ​​the New Guinea Company and the later German New Guinea between 1885 and 1913 to (German) Samoa . Recruiting for the DHPG that was not recorded statistically took place in the British part of the Solomon Islands and the Shortland Islands , among others . Estimates of the total number of workers brought to German / Western Samoa between 1884 and 1940 are 12,000.

Peru

After slavery was abolished in Peru in 1854, the country needed new workers both to manage the large plantations (sugar cane, cotton, olives, grapes, grain) along its coast and to mine guano deposits . In addition to Peru, Nicaragua and Brazil also recruited contract workers in South America in the 19th century, mainly from China, Japan and Polynesia.

  • Chinese
Chinese coolie in chains, Peru 1881
Around 270,000 Chinese coolies worked in Cuba and South America. The journey of the first group of Chinese contract workers from the center of the then pen trade in Macau (then a Portuguese colony ) to Peru took about four months. More Chinese from Guangdong followed them. From 1860 to 1890 there were around 100,000 mainly male employees, 95 percent of whom spoke Cantonese. The workers from China often lived in former slave shelters, did the same work and were often prevented from leaving the plantations like slaves in chains and with cruel punishments. Their repeated uprisings were ultimately unsuccessful.
Other groups reached Peru at the time of the Chinese revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen and after the Communist seizure of power in the People's Republic of China and the establishment of the Republic of China in Taiwan in 1949. In 2007, the 600,000 descendants of Chinese immigrants made up about 2 percent of the Peruvian population.
  • Japanese
In 1823, 17,700 Japanese workers came to cultivate rice in the country, but they were treated much better than the Chinese or local workers, but died in large numbers. Some later returned to Japan.
In 2004, the number of Peruvians with Japanese roots was 109,000.
  • Polynesians
From mid-1862, the recruiters, whose fraud and brutality were notorious, turned to the eastern islands of the South Pacific. Over a period of 14 months, 3,630 predominantly Polynesian islanders were picked up by Chilean and Peruvian Blackbirds with changing tactics such as persuasion, coercion and kidnapping and brought to the port of Callao . In 1864 the Blackbirds operated as far as the sea areas west of Tahiti , which forms part of the Society Islands . Starting from Peru, a total of 33 ships were used to recruit workers in the Pacific between 1863 and 1864.
Reliable figures on evacuated residents only exist for Easter Island , of which between 1,400 and 1,500  Rapanui (or 34% of the estimated population) were taken on board. About 550 were victims of blackbirding . In the unfamiliar climate of Peru, many of the islanders died of infectious diseases. In 1863 only 15 survivors could be repatriated to Easter Island under international pressure, but there they brought in the smallpox , from which until 1864 most of the islanders except 150 to 160 islanders died.
Oahu
  • Chinese
Chinese migrants did not come to Hawaii in large numbers until the second half of the 19th century after two opium wars , the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the long and bloody Taiping uprising tore the country economically and politically. At first, however, the Chinese came in small numbers; most of these early migrants were merchants and artisans from Guangdong Province. Some were farmers who started growing sugar cane , rice, and coffee in Hawaii . While an average of barely 100 Chinese per year came to Hawaii from 1852 to 1875, that number rose to more than 2,000 between 1876 and 1899. In total, more than 50,000 Chinese came in the second half of the 19th century, not all of whom settled permanently; the employment contracts had terms of between three and five years. Although most of the contract workers tried to terminate their employment as quickly as possible and to leave the plantations, tens of thousands remained in the country and took on wage labor or started their own businesses as farmers or business people. In 2000 there were 56,600 people with Chinese roots in Hawaii. With 4.7% of the total population, they form one of the largest ethnic groups in the American state
  • South Pacific Islanders
From 1859 workers were also transported to a lesser extent from the South Pacific Islands for use in the sugar cane plantations of Oahu in the Kingdom of Hawaii . In the years 1877 to 1887 about 2,400 islanders (mostly Polynesians) were brought here.
  • Other
Other 19th-century contract workers in Hawaii came from Japan (from 1868) and Portugal (from 1878). In the 20th century, pineapple-growing workers came from Korea (from 1903), the Philippines (from 1906) and Spain (from 1907). It was not until 1946 that the recruitment of workers officially ended here.

Slavery reception

Caricature from 1886, auction of a coconut for £ 5 with a 'nigger' as a free gift.

There is widespread agreement in the literature that Australia's sugar industry was built “on the backs” of the South Sea Islanders. The extent to which the entire system of indentured labor was slavery is still debated in Australia.

The question of whether Pacific islanders were mainly properly recruited as workers for plantations or whether they were kidnapped, i.e. victims of blackbirding , remains a matter of debate to this day. What is certain is that blackbirding occurred with great frequency in the first ten to fifteen years of the labor trade. The contemporary anthropologist Nikolai Nikolajewitsch Miklucho-Maklai already described the entire labor trade as the slave trade and the labor obligations as slavery . In addition, the employer, unlike the owner of a slave, would not have a caring interest in any benefit to the contract worker beyond the three-year obligation. The employer is forcing the employee to spend, paying little attention to his diet, hardly taking care of him in the event of illness and believing that he cannot endure such a way of life in the long term, but can withstand it for two or three years.

In contrast, the historian Clive Moore took the view that slavery is defined by possession, purchase, sale and lack of wages. In the system of indentured labor , on the other hand, contracts were concluded and work was paid. As a further indication of the correctness of his thesis, Moore sees the fact that many islanders have decided to go to work again after returning home. Slavery is a term used by the Pacific Islanders to emotionally describe the processes and feelings prevailing at the time. Factually, it does not apply. However, the system was in its entirety motivated by exploitation. Those affected had lived under slave-like and racial conditions.

See also

literature

  • Stefanie Affeldt: Slavery in Queensland: Pacific Islanders in the Sugar Cane Fields . In: Dies .: Consuming Whiteness. Australian Racism and the 'White Sugar' Campaign . Lit-Verlag, Münster 2014, ISBN 3-64390-569-6 , pp. 152-188, online
  • Braudel, Fernand : The Perspective of the World . Collins, London 1984.
  • Northrup, David: Indentured labor in the age of imperialism, 1834-1922. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995.
  • Nagl, Dominik. No Part of the Mother Country, but Distinct Dominions - State-Building, Legal Transfer and Governance in England, Massachusetts and South Carolina, 1630–1769 (LIT, 2013): 322, 485 f., 522–535, 577 f., 635–689 . on-line

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Robert D. Craig, Frank P. King: Historical Dictionary of Oceania. Greenwood Press, Westport / London 1981, p. 152.
  2. ↑ Linguee and Leo
  3. ^ The Department of Economics, Natal University College: Indian Agriculture . In: Hellmann, Abrahams, 1949, pp. 214-215
  4. ↑ Thomas Dunbabin: Slavers of the South Seas , Angus & Robertson, Sydney 1935, pp. 149–151.
  5. ↑ Jane Samson : Imperial Benevolence: The Royal Navy and the South Pacific Labor Trade 1867-1872. In: The Great Circle , vol. 18, no. 1 (1996), pp. 14-29, here: p. 16.
  6. ↑ Townsvale Cotton Plantation. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on April 2, 2015 ; accessed on March 20, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.visitscenicrim.com.au
  7. ^ EV Stevens: Blackbirding: A brief history of the South Sea Island Labor Traffic and the vessels engaged in it. In: Journal [of the] Historical Society of Queensland , vol. 4, eat. 3 (1950), pp. 361-403, here: pp. 363 f.
  8. ^ EV Stevens: Blackbirding: A brief history of the South Sea Island Labor Traffic and the vessels engaged in it . In: Journal [of the] Historical Society of Queensland , vol. 4, eat. 3 (1950), pp. 361-403, here: p. 365, see also Brisbane Courier , August 18, 1863.
  9. ↑ Edward Wybergh Docker: The Blackbirders: A brutal story of the Kanaka slave-trade. (Queensland Classics Edition.) Angus & Robertson, Sydney, Melbourne u. a. 1981, p. 42.
  10. ^ EV Stevens: Blackbirding: A brief history of the South Sea Island Labor Traffic and the vessels engaged in it . In: Journal [of the] Historical Society of Queensland , vol. 4, eat. 3 (1950), pp. 361-403, here: p. 366.
  11. ^ Henry Evans Maude: Slavers in Paradise: The Peruvian labor trade in Polynesia, 1862–1864 . Australian National University Press, Canberra 1981, p. 91.
  12. ^ Henry Evans Maude: Slavers in Paradise: The Peruvian labor trade in Polynesia, 1862–1864 . Australian National University Press, Canberra 1981, p. 90;
    see also: JA Bennett: Immigration, 'Blackbirding', Labor Recruiting? The Hawaiian Experience 1877-1887 . In: Journal of Pacific History , vol. 11, no. 1 (1976), pp. 3-27, here: p. 16.
  13. ^ Stewart G. Firth: German Recruitment and Employment of Laborers in the Western Pacific before the First World War. (Thesis submitted for the degree of D. Phil., Oxford, 1973.) British Library Document Supply Center, Wetherby [19--]. (Microfilm), p. 12.
  14. ↑ a b c Paul Bartizan: Pacific Islanders to be used as cheap labor. Australian government prepares to revive “blackbirding”. In: World Socialist Website , November 3, 2003.
  15. ^ A b Deryck Scarr: Recruits and Recruiters: A Portrait of the Pacific Islands Labor Trade . In: The Journal of Pacific History , vol. 2 (1967), pp. 5-24, here p. 5.
  16. ↑ Tracey Flanagan, Meredith Wilkie, Susanna Iuliano: Australian South Sea Islanders. A century of race discrimination under Australian law , Australian Human Rights Commission.
  17. ^ A b c d e Charmaine Ingram: South Sea Islanders call for an apology. In: Australian Broadcasting Corporation , Lateline, September 2, 2013.
  18. ↑ Historic inflation calculator → £ 6/1901 = £ 536.60 / 2014
    Oanda: Historical Exchange Rates → 1.2639 as mean for € / £ in 2014 → € 685.
  19. ↑ Edward Wybergh Docker: The blackbirders: the recruiting of south seas labor for Queensland, 1863-1907. Angus and Robertson, 1970, ISBN 0-20712-038-2 , p. 260.
  20. ↑ Oanda: Historical Exchange Rates → 0.6500 as mean value for A $ / € 2013 → € 24.7 million.
  21. ^ Brij V. Lal, Kate Fortune: The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press, 2000, ISBN 082482265X , p. 621.
  22. ^ Clive Moore: The Pacific Islanders Fund and the Misappropriation of the Wages of Deceased Pacific Isländers by the Queensland Government. ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: University of Queensland , August 15, 2013.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / hapi.uq.edu.au
  23. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica : White Australia Policy
  24. ↑ Museum Victoria: Our Federation Journey - A 'White Australia' ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / museumvictoria.com.au
  25. ↑ a b Catherine Graue: Calls for an official apology over 'blackbirding' trade on 150th anniversary. In: Australian Broadcasting Corporation, August 16, 2013.
  26. ^ University of Sydney : The Call for Recognition of the Australian South Sea Islander Peoples: A Human Rights issue for a 'Forgotten People' , August 20, 2013.
  27. ^ University of Sydney: Free forum to call for recognition of South Sea Isländers. 19th of August 2013.
  28. ^ Clive Moore: The Pacific Islanders Fund and the Misappropriation of the Wages of Deceased Pacific Isländers by the Queensland Government. ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: University of Queensland , August 15, 2013.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / hapi.uq.edu.au
  29. ↑ Museum Victoria: Our Federation Journey - A 'White Australia' ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / museumvictoria.com.au
  30. ^ Special Broadcasting Services: 150 years on, South Sea Islanders seek apology for blackbirding. November 2, 2013.
  31. ^ PJ Stewart: New Zealand and the Pacific Labor Traffic, 1870-1874 . In: Pacific Historical Review , vol. 30, no. 1 (1961), pp. 47-59, here: p. 48.
  32. ^ Stewart G. Firth: German Recruitment and Employment of Laborers in the Western Pacific before the First World War. (Thesis submitted for the degree of D. Phil., Oxford, 1973.) British Library Document Supply Center, Wetherby [19--]. (Microfilm), p. 24.
  33. ^ Stewart G. Firth: German Recruitment and Employment of Laborers in the Western Pacific before the First World War. (Thesis submitted for the degree of D. Phil., Oxford, 1973.) British Library Document Supply Center, Wetherby [19--]. (Microfilm), p. 40.
  34. ^ Stewart G. Firth: German Recruitment and Employment of Laborers in the Western Pacific before the First World War. (Thesis submitted for the degree of D. Phil., Oxford, 1973.) British Library Document Supply Center, Wetherby [19--]. (Microfilm), p. 45.
  35. ^ A b Iriye Akira , Jürgen Osterhammel , Emily S. Rosenberg (ed.): History of the world 1870–1945: World markets and world wars. CH Beck, 2012, ISBN 3-40664-115-6 , 1152 pp.
  36. ^ A b Eleonore von Oertzen, Ulrich Goedeking: Peru: (Current Länderkunde) CH Beck, 2004, ISBN 3-40650-457-4 , p. 71.
  37. ↑ a b Alice Kwong Bolotan: The Chinese in Peru In: Chʻiao, Volume 3, Issue 2. Basement Workshop, 1974.
  38. ↑ Abuhadba Rodrigues, Daniel (2007); Monograph: "Origen de los Apellidos en el Perú". Fondo Editorial de la UNSAAC; Cusco, Peru 2007.
  39. ^ Daniel M. Masterson: The Japanese in Latin America: The Asian American Experience. University of Illinois Press, 2004, ISBN 0-25207-144-1 , p. 237.
  40. ^ Brij V. Lal, Kate Fortune, " The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press , 2000, ISBN 0-82482-265-X , p. 208.
  41. ^ Henry Evans Maude: Slavers in Paradise: The Peruvian labor trade in Polynesia, 1862–1864 . Australian National University Press, Canberra 1981, p. XXI.
  42. ^ A b Henry Evans Maude: Slavers in Paradise: The Peruvian labor trade in Polynesia, 1862–1864 . Australian National University Press, Canberra 1981, p. 19 f.
  43. ^ A b Karl F. Gründler: Served islanders. The residents of Easter Island suffered from the slave trade and oppression. In: Deutschlandradio Kultur from April 5, 2007.
    Quoted from Hermann Fischer: Shadows on Easter Island - A plea for a forgotten people. BIS Verlag, Oldenburg 1998, 248 pages, ISBN 3-81420-588-X .
  44. ^ David M. Brownstone: The Chinese-American Heritage. Facts On File, New York NY et al. 1988, ISBN 0-8160-1627-5 , pp. 95 f.
  45. ^ David M. Brownstone: The Chinese-American Heritage. Facts On File, New York NY et al. 1988, ISBN 0-8160-1627-5 , pp. 96-99.
  46. ↑ US Census Bureau. State & County QuickFacts
  47. ^ A b Niklaus Rudolf Schweizer: Hawaiʻi and the German-speaking peoples. Bern, Frankfurt am Main, LasVegas 1982.
  48. ^ JA Bennett: Immigration, 'Blackbirding', Labor Recruiting? The Hawaiian Experience 1877-1887 . In: Journal of Pacific History , vol. 11, no. 1 (1976), pp. 3-27, here p. 17.
  49. ↑ Edward D. Beechert: Working in Hawaii: A Labor History. University of Hawaii Press, 1985, ISBN 0-82480-890-8 , pp. 77, 81.
  50. ↑ Josepf Cheer, Keir Reeves: Roots Tourism: Blackbirding and the Sout Sea Islander Diaspora . Australia International Tourism Research Unit, Monash University, 2013, p. 249; quoted from:
    Matthew Peacock, Clive Moore: The Forgotten People: A History of the Australian South Sea Island Community. Australian Broadcasting Commission, Sydney 1979, ISBN 0-64297-260-5 , 95 pp.
    Wal F. Bird: Me no go Mally Bulla: Recruiting and blackbirding in the Queensland labor trade 1863-1906. Ginninderra Press, Charnwood (ACT) 2005, ISBN 1-74027-289-7 , 111 pp.
    Carol Gistitin: Quite a colony: South Sea Islanders in Central Queensland 1867 to 1993. ÆBIS Publishing, Brisbane 1995, ISBN 0-64624-229-6 , 123 pp.
  51. ↑ Josepf Cheer, Keir Reeves: Roots Tourism: Blackbirding and the Sout Sea Islander Diaspora . Australia International Tourism Research Unit, Monash University , 2013, p. 246; quoted from:
    Matthew Peacock, Clive Moore: The Forgotten People: A History of the Australian South Sea Island Community. Australian Broadcasting Commission, Sydney 1979, ISBN 0-64297-260-5 , 95 pp.
    Wal F. Bird: Me no go Mally Bulla: Recruiting and blackbirding in the Queensland labor trade 1863-1906. Ginninderra Press, Charnwood (ACT) 2005, ISBN 1-74027-289-7 , 111 pp.
    Reid Mortensen: Slaving in Australian Courts: Blackbirding cases, 1869-1871 , Journal of South Pacific Law, 2000, pp. 1-19.
  52. ↑ multicultural.qld.gov.au: Multicultural in Queensland. The Australian South Sea Islander community . Retrieved April 7, 2010.
  53. ^ John Crawford Wilson: Labor Trade in the Western Pacific. Thomas Richards (Government Printer), Sydney 1881, p. 10, footnote "*".
  54. ↑ Special Broadcasting Service : South Sea Islanders mark sugar 'slave' days. March 26, 2014.
  55. ↑ Susan Johnson: Spirited Away. ( Memento of the original from March 12, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: The Courier-Mail , QWeekend, 2013, pp. 19-21.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / hapi.uq.edu.au