Labor migration

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Labor migration is the migration ( lat. Migratio ) of people for the purpose of taking up work. It is about the migration predominantly from industrially less developed regions to economically more developed regions.

Designations

Foreign workers, guest workers, foreign workers, migrant workers, migrant workers

In the Federal Republic of Germany , the first report by the Federal Labor Office described the economic and social situation of non-German workers under the heading “Foreign workers 1969”. Since then, this designation has increasingly replaced the expression guest workers in official bodies and in the trade unions . The term “guest workers” replaced the term “ foreign workers ”, which was used to describe foreign prisoners of war and civilians who had to do forced labor in the German Reich during the Nazi era and in the Second World War .

In the period of economic boom and full employment in the 1950s and 1960s, there was a shortage of workers in West Germany for low-skilled jobs, especially in the coal and steel and automotive industries , and city and building cleaning . In other European countries, since 1955, with the help of recruitment agencies and bilateral recruitment agreements, initially mainly female, then practically only male guest workers have been recruited.

The first recruitment agreements provided for a rotation principle, according to which workers would return to their home countries after a while and be replaced by newly recruited workers. The term guest workers expressed that Germany granted workers a temporary work stay as “guests”. The contradictions and irony that lay in the use of the very positive connotation of the term guest in the context of an almost value-neutral framework agreement on labor recruitment was also presented in modern German-language guest worker literature. For those who stayed permanently, the term “migrant workers” came into use.

In the Federal Republic of Germany, foreign workers were both the guest workers recruited from the recruiting countries in southern Europe and Turkey, as well as other workers from western European countries and overseas, including qualified employees. The European regulations on labor migration adopted within the EEC speak of “migrant workers”.

In individual labor market segments there has always been labor migration, which serves to transfer specialist knowledge. This migration is also based in part on targeted recruitment from abroad. For example, during the period of industrialization, English and Irish experts in mining and metallurgy emigrated to work elsewhere on the development of new deposits and the development of manufacturing industries. Another example is the transfer of knowledge in mechanical engineering and in the textile, coal and steel and heavy industry, which was largely based on migration, and this above all in an early phase, before a formalized technician and engineer training was introduced.

Germany

Labor migration to Germany

Development until the beginning of the 20th century

Recruitment of people for the purpose of gainful employment and the economic development of a state has been intensified since the Thirty Years' War, Prussia in particular pursued a forced immigration policy ( Peuplierung ). From the point of view of the recruiting state, the motivation for recruiting was usually not yet primarily the search for workers for existing businesses, but rather the incentive to set up new farms (and other businesses) for the purpose of inland colonization of areas with weak population and structurally weaknesses within the recruiting area's domain State, as well as the economic development through the know-how of highly qualified people from abroad.

Labor migration in the narrower sense of the word begins in connection with industrialization. In the industrial regions of the German Empire, there was a particularly high level of immigration from Poles at the end of the 19th century, although some of them came from the eastern regions of the German Empire (see e.g. Ruhr Poland ), i.e. some of them were internal migrants. However, after about 1880 this policy was determined by the endeavor not to let the necessary influx of workers from eastern countries encourage immigration, but to keep it in the path of transnational seasonal migration. For this purpose, Prussia established a control system from 1890 to control and monitor the labor migration of the Polish workforce.

Subsequent developments

This article or section needs to be revised: There is no historical overview of labor migration up to 1945: civilian workers , foreign workers , Eastern workers and Nazi forced labor .
Please help to improve it , and then remove this flag.

Development in the Federal Republic of Germany up to reunification

As early as the early 1950s, a labor shortage was noticeable in some branches of the Federal Republic . The high number of war dead and prisoners as well as murdered and refugee Jews limited the labor supply. Mining in particular suffered from the fact that many newly hired workers switched to industries with less harsh working conditions at the first opportunity. At first the mining companies became active themselves and recruited new miners among the refugees from Transylvania in Austria, although the number remained small. On the other hand, several million Germans from East Germany and the scattered German settlement areas of Eastern Europe came to the Federal Republic through flight and expulsion . At that time, the Federal Ministry of Economics was already considering recruiting Italian workers, which, however, was initially rejected by the employers. Among other things, they expected low work performance and the spread of communist ideas.

The actual initiative did not come from Germany, as the unemployment rate was still high until the 1950s. In autumn 1953, the Italian government promoted Italian guest workers in the Federal Republic. In this way, the trade deficit should be compensated by surpluses in the transfer balance in order to balance the current account against the Federal Republic. At first, the federal government reacted cautiously to the offer. Above all, Labor Minister Anton Storch initially wanted to bring German unemployed people from structurally weak areas into work. Economics Minister Ludwig Erhard took the opposite position . In 1954, he began a targeted press campaign to spark a public discussion of recruiting foreign workers. At the same time, the Italian government pushed through talks on the framework conditions for the recruitment of workers. In these negotiations, the selection process was regulated by the German labor administration, the wage transfer and family reunification .

In the summer of 1955, the federal government changed its stance, also because it was foreseeable that the establishment of the Bundeswehr and the planned conscription would tie up additional workers and because the recruitment of Italian workers was also being discussed in France and Switzerland . An initial extrapolation provided for a recruitment requirement of 800,000 workers for 1956. On December 20, 1955, the German-Italian recruitment agreement was signed. The " Agreement on the Recruitment and Placement of Italian Workers in the Federal Republic of Germany " of December 20, 1955 regulated the practical implementation of job placement in Italy from the requirements of German companies to the selection of applicants in Italy to travel, wage issues and family reunification . First, seasonal workers should be recruited for agriculture and for the hotel and restaurant industry. The employment contracts were limited to six or twelve months, but shortly after the agreement was signed, companies from all sectors, especially industry and mining, submitted placement contracts, which increasingly led to the recruitment of male workers.

Further recruitment contracts were signed, in 1960 with Greece and Spain, 1961 with Turkey, 1963 with Morocco, 1964 with Portugal, 1965 with Tunisia and 1968 with Yugoslavia.

The government of Turkey in particular exerted influence on the authorities in the Federal Republic of Germany to take in guest workers on a large scale. In 1960, Legation Councilor Ercin from the Turkish Embassy conveyed his government's wish for a migration agreement to be concluded. A German rejection would be viewed by his government as a “resetting” of NATO member Turkey, especially against Greece. The expert Faruk Şen ruled that at the beginning of the 1960s and 1970s, Turkey was “dependent” on sending workers to other countries in order to reduce unemployment and to compensate for the high foreign trade deficit by paying migrants back home . For its part, Germany's lead Federal Ministry of the Interior made it important to limit the residence permits to a maximum of two years in the recruitment agreement. It should "be made clear that permanent employment of Turkish workers in the federal territory and immigration, which is also not considered important by Turkey, are not planned".

In July 1954, the share of guest workers in the total number of employed workers was 0.4 percent. The big boost began around 1960, the first year of full employment , when this guest worker quota was 1.5 percent; it reached 10.3 percent in September 1971. After the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, the Federal Republic lost an important source of labor with the escape from the Soviet occupation zone and the GDR , at the same time the economy continued to grow, so that recruitment increased and was extended to other countries.

At first the workers lived in barracks in poor conditions . However, family reunification began in the 1960s .

In September 1964, the Portuguese Armando Rodrigues de Sá was honored as the millionth guest worker in the FRG. Employers' association, labor administration and the media received the carpenter ceremoniously at the Cologne-Deutz train station , the company band played Georges Bizet's on to the torero fight! , the then Federal Minister of the Interior welcomed him and he was welcomed with a bouquet of carnations, a certificate of honor and a Zündapp moped (today in the House of History ).

The term guest worker lost its relevance in 1964 with the abandonment of the rotation principle. The former immigrants are now referred to as first generation migrants.

As early as the early 1970s, it became apparent that the original assumption of a limited stay in Germany was wrong. The originally intended rotation model came under pressure from employers who wanted to save the costs of re-training. By law the draw was controlled by family members, a possibility that was also used by many of the migrants.

In 1973 there were around four million guest workers and relatives in the Federal Republic. In the same year it was agreed to stop recruiting due to the threatening economic situation caused by the oil crisis. With the controversial Return Assistance Act to financially promote the willingness of foreign workers to return, the Federal Government tried in 1983/84 to ease the burden on the labor market due to increasing unemployment.

Of the 14 million guest workers who came to Germany, around 12 million returned.

Development in the GDR

Nilda Madraso trained as a Cuban guest worker in the mid-1980s to be a man-made fiber worker in the “Wilhelm Pieck” Schwarza man-made fiber combine (GDR)

In the German Democratic Republic (GDR), contract workers played a similar role. In 1989, 94,000 contract workers were resident in the GDR, two thirds were of Vietnamese origin. Other countries of origin were Cuba , Algeria , Mozambique , Angola , Poland and Hungary . They were employed in GDR companies for a limited period of up to five years. The workers lived in special housing estates. An integration of these workers, who often spoke insufficient German, into the GDR society was not intended and only took place in the rarest cases.

Development after the reunification

From 1990 onwards, due to the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the expansion of the European Union , migrant workers from Eastern Europe came to Western Europe .

The recruitment ban was only interrupted by the green card offensive into the 21st century . This made the Federal Republic of Germany de facto a country of immigration , although this was not denied by all German governments until the end of the 1990s, at least it was ignored and an active integration policy was not desired.

emigration

Emigrating German workers prefer Switzerland. A third of the Swiss would like to have fewer Germans in the country and to limit the influx of workers from Germany.

At the beginning of the 18th century , economic problems in Germany led to a wave of emigration to the United States . Around 1850, almost a million Germans emigrated to the United States, and at the end of the 19th century they formed the largest immigrant group and, to a large extent, the local trade unions .

Post-reunification developments and political debate

After reunification, the Federal Republic of Germany reached government agreements with the Central and Eastern European states of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Macedonia , Serbia and Turkey on the posting and employment of workers from foreign companies on the basis of work contracts (as of June 2018).

In view of the pressure of the growing number of asylum seekers and the shortage of skilled workers, some politicians are in favor of redirecting the demand of well-trained people for asylum in part towards labor migration to Germany. In October 2013 , the President of the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, Manfred Schmidt , proposed that qualified persons be accepted as migrant workers before they apply for asylum, in a new preliminary stage of the asylum procedure. Saxony's Interior Minister Markus Ulbig , on the other hand, is striving to take in qualified people from asylum procedures that have been ongoing for a long time. Federal Interior Minister Hans-Peter Friedrich declared that a humanitarian problem could not be solved with the means of labor migration; Experts from the Federal Employment Agency and the Chamber of Industry and Commerce referred to the need to record the qualifications and potential available among refugees at all. This debate will be held again in the wake of the refugee crisis in Europe in 2015 .

In 2016, the Federal Government introduced the “Western Balkans Regulation”, a program limited to 2020 for the admission of migrant workers from the Western Balkans .

In view of a declared shortage of skilled workers in Germany, u. a. the German Scholars Organization (GSO) for returnees (as of November 2014). The GSO has offered individual university professors working in Switzerland up to 100,000 euros for their return. The state of North Rhine-Westphalia actively recruits returnees (as of January 2019); until 2014 this was also the case for Bavaria . In 2015, the Advisory Council of German Foundations for Integration and Migration (SVR) advocated sector-specific mobility and returnees programs in order to recruit young, well-qualified people, to retain them permanently or to bring them back again. Around 80% of the emigrants from Germany and those returning are each highly qualified .

Labor migration to France

In France, the first French five-year plan, the Monnet plan , stipulated that labor demand should initially be met primarily by domestic workers. For the period 1946/47, the demand was estimated at 980,000 workers. With the exception of an uncontrollable Algerian migration estimated at 100,000 workers, only around 34% of this need should be covered by (additional) immigration. The additional workforce should be gained by extending working life , increasing the number of women and reintegrating pensioners.

According to the political scientist Patrick Weil , immigration to France in the second half of the 20th century, which at that time would have been urgently needed for economic and demographic reasons, was prevented by the fact that living space on the French housing market was scarce and the transfer of foreign currency had been restricted . According to Pierre Guillen, this restriction on foreign currency transfers, which reduced remittances, was ordered by the Ministry of Finance against the will of the Ministry of Labor and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

European Union

Freedom of movement applies within the EU . In addition, separate rules have been created to facilitate internal migration within the EU , for example Directive 96/71 / EC on the posting of workers .

With regard to labor migration from third countries, the EU has made numerous regulations:

The EURES network was founded in 1993 with the aim of promoting intra-European, cross-border mobility in the labor market.

To support the Member States in developing and strengthening their integration policies, the EU created the New Skills Agenda and an action plan for the integration of third-country nationals. These include a. Instruments to better integrate immigrants into the labor market.

International labor organization

The Convention on Abuses During Migration and the Promotion of Equal Opportunities and Treatment of Migrant Workers of the International Labor Organization (ILO Convention 143) contains a call to governments to combat illegal immigration and to promote the integration of migrants. According to this convention, they should also be treated in the same way as nationals in fraud on wage and fringe benefits.

Labor migration worldwide

Recruiting guest workers for Australia in East Timor (2019)

The growing industrial centers around the world led to new types of labor migrations. The trigger was often the colonial plantation economy and the mining of mineral resources (such as guano and copper in Chile, silver and tin in Bolivia, pepper and rubber in Malaya, lead, zinc and copper in Northern Rhodesia, copper and uranium in the Belgian Congo).

Similar to Germany, other European countries began to recruit guest workers after the Second World War , for example France and Great Britain . These advertised increasingly in the countries that were then or once part of their colonies .

As a result of the oil boom , many Middle Eastern countries also recruited guest workers, mainly from Pakistan , India and Bangladesh , but also from poorer Arab countries and sub-Saharan Africa. In some countries, such as Kuwait, migrant workers make up up to 80% of the resident population. In general, there are hardly any efforts to integrate here, and it is often not legally possible to obtain citizenship even after decades. There are special restrictions for migrant women in this area due to their dependence on the Kafala system. Media reported in 2014 that there are a quarter of a million female domestic workers in Lebanon who are forced into a kind of tacit slavery by the Kafala system; Sexual violence and forced prostitution would also benefit from this system. According to Human Rights Watch, domestic workers in Qatar experience not only labor violations, but also physical and sexual abuse.

Labor migration is also to be considered in the USA , mainly from Mexico . The demographer Jeff Passel estimated the number of illegal immigrants in the USA in March 2004 at 10.3 million, of which 57% or 5.9 million are said to be Mexicans. The other way round, many Americans migrate to the maquiladora region in the American-Mexican border area. For the most part, branches of the textile , electrical , electronics and furniture industries can be found here, which benefit from the advantages of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) . Other migrant workers come from China , the Philippines , India and Vietnam , among others .

According to a 2010 study by the Economic Policy Institute , immigration in the United States has consistently had a positive impact on the relative wage levels of native-born workers. In contrast, according to the study, the former immigrants are exposed to competitive pressure by the later immigrants, since they have a similar qualification structure, and thus lose relative salary income.

There are millions of migrant workers in Asia ; they make up the highest proportion in Singapore , where foreigners make up around 30% of the workforce, and more recently in the United Arab Emirates (85% foreigners in Dubai ).

Almost completely unnoticed by the West, labor migration is taking place on a large scale in West Africa. Millions of young people, mainly from the Sahel countries, work under often inhumane conditions, for example on plantations in coastal states such as Ghana , Ivory Coast and Liberia , but also in Senegal . Big cities like Lagos and the Nigerian petroleum industry are also very attractive.

The underestimation of the required integration services by the state and the society of the host countries, but also by the migrants themselves commented Max Frisch with the dictum become saying . "We called workers and we got people" (rise to were the discussions about foreigners and “Foreign infiltration” in Switzerland in the 1960s; the reason for the discussions was the large number of immigrants, especially Italian immigrants / seasonal workers).

Illegal migrant workers

In contrast to Germany, extensive legalization measures were repeatedly taken in other countries by the previously irregular immigrants .

In 2004, the Thai government allowed all unauthorized foreigners who came before November 2003 to register. 1.5 million people took advantage of this opportunity. In Spain , between February 2005 and May 2005, 700,000 irregular immigrants applied for a residence permit.

Since the possibilities for legal migration are very limited for many people, many migrants use the help of escape helpers or people smugglers . There are always fatalities. In June 2000, 58 Asian refugees were found suffocated in a truck in the port of Dover, England .

Effects on the labor market

According to a study by the British National Institute of Economic and Social Research , no statistical connection has been established between a high immigration rate and high unemployment; there is even a weak indication of an effect in the opposite direction, namely that a high rate of immigration stimulates the economy and thereby reduces unemployment even among the low-skilled.

A subjectively perceived economic threat from immigrants increases prejudices against them. However, this effect is not limited to educationally disadvantaged milieus. Highly educated people also express prejudice against immigrants as soon as they are described as highly educated and therefore perceived as an economic threat.

If wage rates in different countries converge on the market due to migration, this is called wage convergence .

If immigrants occupy positions in the lower social classes and, in this context, there is a social advancement of local people, this is called a lower class, based on the sociologist Hans-Joachim Hoffmann-Nowotny .

Consequences for the countries of origin

The effects of massive labor migration on the countries of origin are at least as great as in the host countries. On the one hand, the money sent by guest workers can represent a large part of the respective gross national income - in Moldova and Albania, for example, these sums by far exceed the services generated in the country; in Bulgaria , Morocco or Bangladesh they are also very considerable. On the other hand, massive emigration, especially of young people, can overage entire regions.

The social consequences can also be significant. Families are often torn apart for decades. Returning guest workers often find it difficult to find their way back home. They are torn between old and new home and are often rejected by those who stayed at home. In the former Yugoslavia, for example, there is the cliché of the farm worker who comes home in a white Mercedes after ten years of construction and plays the high man here. Since mostly men emigrate, emigration can also affect the demographic situation of a region.

On the other hand, in countries with a long tradition of the Gastarbajteri , such as Yugoslavia , this has led to a fruitful exchange with the host countries, especially the German-speaking area .

Talent drain

As a talent exodus (English brain drain ) is defined as the emigration to be able to find one that matches their training work at home and live on the more skilled segments of the population if they do not see where the possibilities. Talent drain often leads to a vicious circle: a lack of qualified staff makes the location even more attractive and with it the economic and social situation. Talent churn also takes place at times when migration is otherwise tight, because experts are still wanted despite all immigration restrictions.

Many countries and regions, but especially the OECD countries , have introduced “ brain gain ” programs in order to halt this development. The aim is to persuade them to stay with special offers and support, especially for young academics. One focus is often to improve the education system, since experience shows that studying in another country is often the first step towards emigrating. The success of such endeavors is limited, however, since without an improvement in the general situation they are usually little more than declarations of intent.

In the meantime, however, many scientists consider the purely negative view of talent drain from the perspective of the releasing nation or region to be outdated. The Indian IT sector is an impressive example of the new research approach that sees the migration of skilled workers as a development perspective for poorer countries. Since the 1960s, many Indian skilled workers emigrated to the USA, where they made a significant contribution to the boom in the industry there. There they were able to build up capital, know-how and contacts. In the nineties, many migrated back to India and founded companies themselves, from which the Indian economy benefited greatly and which were able to realize further comparative cost advantages through the global IT crisis .

In addition, the remittances of migrants to their home countries are receiving increasing attention. They exceed the globally registered official development aid ( ODA ) and in many poor countries it accounts for the largest share of the gross domestic product (GDP) (in El Salvador around 18%).

However, there is a clear negative assessment of the talent drain with regard to medical staff, since their training is very expensive and since this staff is scarce in all poorer countries (except Cuba ).

Similar to the talent exodus and the migration is nurses , shortly Care Migration (English care drain ) problematic. In particular, women from countries in Eastern, Central and Southeastern Europe such as Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine come to the recipient countries of Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland and Spain. Care migration is also taking place in other countries, such as Turkey and Russia. Foreign nursing staff find employment in nursing homes on the one hand, but also in home care on the other .

See also

literature

  • Ulrich Herbert: History of the policy on foreigners in Germany. Seasonal workers, forced laborers, guest workers, refugees. Munich 2001.
  • Hedwig Richter u. Ralf Richter: The world of guest workers. Life between Palermo and Wolfsburg. Schöningh 2012.
  • Harald Bauder: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets New York . ISBN 0-19-518088-7
  • Karin Hunn: "We'll be back next year ...". The history of the Turkish “guest workers” in the Federal Republic , Wallstein, Göttingen 2005, 598 pages, ISBN 3-89244-945-7
  • Friedrich Heckmann: The Federal Republic: A country of immigration? On the sociology of the guest worker population as an immigrant minority , Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta 1981.
  • Castro Varela, María do Mar / Clayton, Dimitria (eds.): Migration, Gender, Labor Market. New contributions to women and globalization. 2003, ISBN 3-89741-126-1
  • Heike Knortz: Diplomatic barter deals. “Guest workers” in West German diplomacy and employment policy 1953–1973. Böhlau, Cologne 2008, ISBN 978-3-412-20074-9 .
  • Dario / Kanzleiter, Boris (Ed.): To the north. Mexican labor migrants between neoliberal restructuring, militarization of the US border and the American dream . Publisher: Schwarze Risse, 1999, ISBN 3-924737-47-9
  • Hans Uske, Michael Heveling-Fischell, Waldemar Mathejczyk: Migration risk. Illness and disability from work . Duisburg Institute for Language and Social Research, ISBN 3-927388-81-5
  • Raymond Gétaz, Kathi Hahn, Hannes Reiser (editor): Bitter harvest. Modern slavery in industrial agriculture in Europe. European Citizens' Forum / CEDRI, ISBN 3-9522125-2-0
  • Stefan Rother: Labor migration between the nation state and global migration governance: The example of the sending country of the Philippines . In: Heribert Weiland, Ingrid Wehr, Matthias Seifert (eds.): Good governance in the dead end . Nomos, Baden-Baden 2009, pp. 217-240, ISBN 978-3-8329-4292-2

Web links

Commons : Foreign workers  - album with pictures, videos and audio files
present
history

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Foreign workers 1969, Federal Employment Agency, Nuremberg 1970
  2. ↑ From “foreign workers” to “guest workers” by Roberto Sala , Institute for Contemporary History, Munich / Berlin 2007.
  3. ^ Monika Mattes: Migration and Gender in the Federal Republic of Germany. In: Contemporary history online. Retrieved February 19, 2018 .
  4. ↑ Notes on the image of women in the "guest worker literature" , Anke Asfur, Fritz-Hüser-Institut, Dortmund 2008.
  5. ↑ Klaus J. Bade: When Germany became a country of immigration. In: The time. November 24, 2013, accessed February 19, 2018 .
  6. ^ Jochen Oltmer: Migration in the 19th and 20th centuries. De Gruyter, 2013, ISBN 978-3-486-75600-5 . P. 20 .
  7. ^ Calendar sheet : First influx of guest workers from the south. In: Deutschlandradio , December 20, 2005.
  8. ↑ Chronicle “Migration History and Integration Policy in Germany”. In: Federal Agency for Civic Education , November 30, 2007.
  9. ^ Johannes-Dieter Steinert: Migration and Politics. West Germany - Europe - Overseas 1945–1961. Osnabrück 1995, p. 307.
  10. ↑ Faruk Şen: Turkish Employees 'Societies - Establishment, structure and economic function of Turkish Employees' Societies for the socio-economic situation in Turkey. Frankfurt am Main 1980, p. 33 ff., Quoted from Stefan Luft : Farewell to multiculturalism. Resch, Graefelfing 2006, p. 103. See also Heike Knortz : Diplomatic barter deals. Guest workers in West German diplomacy and employment policy 1953–1973. Böhlau, Cologne 2008.
  11. ↑ Quoted from Aytac Eryilmaz, Mathilde Jamin (ed.): Fremde Heimat - Yaban, Silan olur. A History of Immigration from Turkey. Klartext, Essen 1998, p. 73.
  12. ↑ Alexandra Ventura Corceiro: History and Development of Portuguese Labor Migration to the Federal Republic of Germany. The story of Armando Rodrigues de Sá. ( Memento from January 27, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) In: Documentation center and museum about migration in Germany (PDF; 21 kB).
  13. ↑ Hedwig Richter : The Complexity of Integration. Labor migration to the Federal Republic of Germany from the fifties to the seventies. In: Zeitgeschichte Online , November 2015.
  14. ↑ Switzerland wants to curb immigration from Germany . The mirror . May 12, 2009. Retrieved June 7, 2012.
  15. ↑ This is what the Swiss really think about immigration from Germany . Look . April 29, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2012.
  16. ↑ a b 1683–1900 - History and Immigration . US Department of State . Retrieved June 7, 2012.
  17. ↑ Leaflet No. 16: Employment of foreign workers within the framework of work contracts in Germany. Federal Employment Agency, June 2018, accessed on May 26, 2019 . Preface, p. 2.
  18. ↑ Federal Office boss Schmidt wants to spare well-trained refugees an asylum procedure. Der Spiegel (online), October 13, 2013, accessed on October 14, 2013 .
  19. ↑ Debate on refugee policy: “Labor migration does not solve the problem”. Tagesschau, October 14, 2013, archived from the original on October 14, 2013 ; Retrieved December 7, 2013 .
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  21. ↑ Dorothea Siems: The new guest workers come from the Western Balkans. In: world. October 2, 2017. Retrieved May 26, 2019 .
  22. ^ Researcher return program GSO / Carl Zeiss Foundation. German Scholars Organization eV, November 2014, accessed on January 6, 2019 .
  23. ↑ Germany pays for returnees. NZZ on Sunday, October 6, 2013, accessed on October 14, 2013 .
  24. ↑ Return program. Ministry for Innovation, Science and Research of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, accessed on January 6, 2019 .
  25. ^ Ralf Scharnitzky: "Return to Bavaria" initiative: The recruitment flop. In: www.sueddeutsche.de. June 26, 2014, accessed January 6, 2019 .
  26. ↑ Study on emigration: Germany is losing talent to other countries. FAZ, March 10, 2015, accessed on September 20, 2015 .
  27. ↑ Heike Knortz : Guest workers for Europe: The economic history of early European migration and integration , Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar, 2015, ISBN 978-3-412-50178-5 , p. 59 .
  28. ↑ Patrick Weil, La France et ses étrangers , p. 83, quoted from Heike Knortz : Guest workers for Europe: The economic history of early European migration and integration , Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar, 2015, ISBN 978-3-412-50178-5 , P. 57 .
  29. ↑ Pierre Guillen, L'immigration italienne en France , p. 41 f. and p. 47, quoted from Heike Knortz: Gastarbeiter für Europa: The economic history of early European migration and integration , Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar, 2015, ISBN 978-3-412-50178-5 , p. 57 .
  30. ↑ Integration: New Skills Profile tool to help non-EU nationals enter the labor market. European Commission, June 20, 2017, accessed May 1, 2018 .
  31. ↑ Convention on Abuses During Migration and the Promotion of Equal Opportunities and Treatment of Migrant Workers, 1975 (ILO Convention 143). Retrieved February 23, 2020 .
  32. ^ Trafficking in human beings, smuggling, trafficking in labor. Retrieved May 27, 2019 .
  33. ↑ Mat Nashed: Raped or driven into prostitution. In: Vice . May 19, 2014, accessed December 20, 2017 .
  34. ^ Qatar: Labor law reforms do not change anything in the system that is hostile to human rights. In: Human Rights Watch. January 12, 2017. Retrieved December 20, 2017 .
  35. ↑ Knut Henkel Train into the Unknown . About illegal migrant workers who come to the USA via Mexico. In: Rheinischer Merkur , No. 19/2010, page 32.
  36. ^ Migration News , April 2005.
  37. ↑ Heidi Shierholz: Immigration and Wages Methodological advancements confirm modest gains for native workers , Economic Policy Institute Report, Briefing Paper # 255, February 4, 2010. Quoted by: Anna Turner: Immigration helps boost relative wages of US-born workers at all levels of education. Economic Policy Institute , February 2010.
  38. ↑ Ben Chu: Immigration does not cause unemployment , The Independent, January 10, 2012. (English)
  39. ↑ Antony SR Manstead: The psychology of social class: how socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behavior . In: British Journal of Social Psychology . tape 57 , no. 2 , 2018, p. 267–291 , doi : 10.1111 / bjso.12251 , PMID 29492984 , PMC 5901394 (free full text) - ( wiley.com [accessed September 20, 2019]).
  40. ↑ Seeing and understanding care migration through different eyes. Caritas Germany, September 27, 2011, accessed on July 18, 2017 .