Intercultural bilingual education

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As intercultural bilingual education ( IBE ) are bilingual , intercultural education and teaching models referred to situations with two or more cultures and languages are designed in contact, typically a dominant and disadvantaged, mostly indigenous culture. Although it can be used in almost every country in the world, the concept of the IZE (in Spanish educación intercultural bilingüe , EIB or educación bilingüe intercultural , EBI ) is used in particular in Latin America , where it has been used more and more for two to three decades under the pressure of indigenous mass movements is offered as an alternative for indigenous people to the monolingual, Spanish or Portuguese-speaking schools that still exist.

Models for the language of instruction in a bilingual intercultural environment

Colin Baker distinguishes four possible models of teaching for bilingual or multilingual environments. Of these, the first two are aimed at assimilation of the minority to the dominant culture and language (hereinafter: "majority language"), while the other two aim at multilingualism and multiculturalism .

Lesson type Students' mother tongue classroom language Social and educational goals Linguistic goals
Submersion ("immersion") Minority language Majority language assimilation Monolingualism in the dominant language
crossing Minority language Transition from the minority to the majority language assimilation Relative monolingualism in the dominant language (subtractive bilingualism)
Immersion ("immersion") Majority language Bilingual, initially with a focus on L2 (minority language) Pluralism and development Bilingualism (listening, speaking, reading and writing)
conservation Minority language Bilingual, with a focus on L1 (minority language) Conservation, pluralism and development Bilingualism (listening, speaking, reading and writing)

History of the IZE in Latin America

With the independence of the states of Latin America at the beginning of the 19th century, their elites pursued national unity on the basis of Creole culture and Spanish or Portuguese language. The school education, which took place exclusively in Spanish, only reached the children of the privileged classes, at most parts of the Spanish or Portuguese-speaking mestizos .

It was not until the 20th century that there were increasing efforts to provide schooling for the entire population, with the declared aim of Hispanization (castellanización) of the indigenous population. The exclusive use of Spanish as the language of instruction in classes in which no child understood it led to poor learning success. The speakers of the indigenous languages ​​left school illiterate, stigmatized as uneducated Indians, second-class citizens. The use of an indigenous language became a social disadvantage, so that the mother tongue was no longer used and instead a poor Spanish. The result was uprooted people who were neither at home in the indigenous nor in the dominant culture.

The Dallas (USA) -based Summer Evangelical Institute for Linguistics (SIL) was the first to introduce bilingual education for indigenous people with the aim of evangelism . The SIL's first bilingual educational programs began in Mexico and Guatemala in the 1930s, in Ecuador and Peru in the 1940s, and in Bolivia in 1955.

One of the goals of the National Revolution in Bolivia in 1952 was to end the discrimination against the indigenous peoples by integrating them into society. This should be achieved, among other things, through a suitable school education adapted to the language situation. The government of Víctor Paz Estenssoro entrusted the SIL with school education and Hispanization in the multilingual eastern lowlands, which in return received the right to evangelism. Classes were taught in the indigenous languages ​​in the first grades of primary school to make learning Spanish easier. From secondary school at the latest, lessons were exclusively in Spanish.

The first school programs without the express goal of Hispanization were developed in the 1960s, including a pilot program by the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos in a Quechua-speaking area in the Quinua district ( Ayacucho department , Peru ). As a result of the efforts of this university, bilingual education was included in the educational reform in 1972 under the government of General Juan Velasco Alvarado . Peru, ruled by Juan Velasco Alvarado, was the first country on the American continent to make an indigenous language, Quechua , an official language in 1975 . However, this remained largely a symbolic act: the introduction of the foreign or second language Quechua in Lima failed due to racist prejudice, and even in the rural Andean region there were no real changes. Since the adoption of the 1979 constitution, Quechua is no longer an official language, but the constitution restricts the official use of indigenous languages ​​to the areas "where they dominate". This formulation from 1979 was largely adopted in the 1993 constitution adopted by Alberto Fujimori .

In 1973 the General Directorate for Indigenous Education (DGEI) was established in Mexico, which provides for the use of 56 officially recognized indigenous languages. The 1973 Federal Education Act of Mexico specifically stipulated that Spanish classes should not be at the expense of the cultural and linguistic identity of indigenous students.

Despite declarations to the contrary, all of these bilingual programs ran in the sense of transitional bilingualism, i.e. H. Preparing primary school students to learn Spanish. Thus, where they really took place, they made a significant contribution to the more effective dissemination of Spanish as the general language. However, the projects were limited in terms of space and time and were only made possible by international financial aid and political pressure, in particular by the German Society for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), which set up a project for bilingual teaching in Quechua or Aymara and Spanish in Department of Puno (Peru) and the United States Agency for International Development (US-AID).

Since the 1970s, an indigenous movement has been gaining strength in numerous countries, including the demand for the preservation of the indigenous culture and language as well as a corresponding schooling. Building on the experiences of previous bilingual educational projects, a new educational model for the preservation and development of the indigenous languages ​​emerged, which also included cultural aspects that went beyond the purely linguistic. It was about differences in everyday culture, traditions and worldviews. Since the early 1980s there has been talk of intercultural bilingual education.

Surprisingly for the privileged of Ecuador , but also for the Spanish-speaking majority, there was a solstice uprising in Ecuador in 1990 ( Inti Raymi shayariy / hatariy) , in which indigenous people from the high and lowlands took part for the first time and for several days the country's traffic routes blocked. In addition to demands for the return of stolen land and land reform, the IZE was also called for for the indigenous peoples, namely as an education system administered by the indigenous people themselves. This was reflected in the Ecuadorian constitution in 1998, where Article 84, which lays down the collective rights of the indigenous peoples, states under paragraph 11 sentence 2: "The indigenous peoples have their own intercultural and bilingual education system."

Since then, laws have been passed in other Latin American countries that recognize linguistic and cultural rights. In addition to Ecuador, the IZE was also incorporated into the constitution in Argentina , Bolivia , Brazil , Colombia and Mexico . In the new constitution of Ecuador from 2009 now in article 57 "indigenous communities, communities, peoples, nationalities in accordance with the constitution ..." the right to "develop, consolidate and strengthen the system of intercultural." bilingual education ... from early childhood to higher education ... ”. According to Art. 347, the state is responsible for “ensuring the system of intercultural bilingual education, in which the main language of the respective nationality and the language for intercultural relations is Spanish ...”.

To date, the IZE does not reach the majority of the indigenous people in most countries and is only used in primary school education. In 2007 , for example, in the predominantly Quechua-speaking Peruvian region of Cusco, IZE programs with a total of 700 teachers took place in only eight of the 13 provinces, reaching only 20% to 30% of the students. In some countries, including Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Mexico, the regulations stipulate that the IZE should reach all students with indigenous mother tongues, in Paraguay even the general population.

In Bolivia in particular, where the constitution passed under the Evo Morales government in 2009 already stipulates 37 official languages ​​and the use of at least one official indigenous language at regional level, the binding IZE for all students in the country - indigenous as well as Spanish-speaking - has been discussed for several years, i.e. as Bilingualism in both directions. This includes the compulsory learning of at least one indigenous language by the entire population. The 1994 law on educational reform in Bolivia (Ley 1565) set the educational goal not only of preserving and developing indigenous languages, but also of achieving bilingualism in both directions. However, there was an asymmetry here, as Article 9 stipulated two linguistic modalities: monolingual in Spanish with learning of an indigenous language (as a subject, for Spanish speakers) and bilingual with the indigenous language as the first language and Spanish as a second language. In contrast, the law Ley educativa 070 "Avelino Siñani - Elizardo Pérez" , passed under Evo Morales on December 20, 2010, stipulates in Article 7 that in populations and communities with an indigenous mother tongue, the first language in school must be the indigenous and the second Spanish, if Spanish is the mother tongue, the first language must be Spanish and the second the indigenous language spoken in the region. This means that, for the first time in Bolivia's history, every student in the country learns an indigenous language - at least according to the letter of the law. For several years now, all government employees in Bolivia have been required to speak an indigenous language in addition to Spanish. In the meantime this is also a condition for keeping his state employment. Therefore, appropriate courses for adults are being set up and Quechua and Aymara are increasingly being used on television. According to the linguist Rosaleen Howard (2014), this is an important prerequisite for the preservation of indigenous languages, since IZE - also in the form of Ley educativa 070 - alone does not offer a sufficient incentive to use the language.

In Peru, on the other hand, in 2010 the indigenous teachers' association Asociación Nacional de Maestros de Educación Bilingüe Intercultural criticized the implementation of the IZE by the Ministry of Education as a mere bridge to Hispanization and monoculturalization and demanded that the education of the indigenous people should be in the hands of the indigenous people, organized by the teachers and sages of the indigenous peoples or village communities ( ayllu ). The chairman of the Regional Academy of the Quechua Language in Cajamarca (ARIQC), Mr. Dolores Ayay Chilón, accused the state authorities in early 2011 of not doing anything for the preservation of the highly endangered Cajamarca-Quechua or the one also in the Cajamarca region , contrary to official statements about IZE spoken Aguaruna language (Awajún), on the contrary, teachers still suppress the use of Quechua today. According to the Peruvian ombudsman (defensor del pueblo) Eduardo Vega Luna from 2013, according to the 2007 census, over 12% of students in Peru speak an indigenous language as their mother tongue, but 46% of these students do not receive instruction in their mother tongue, and most of the provinces of Peru spend less than 1% of their education budget on intercultural bilingual education. Instead of training indigenous people as teachers for intercultural bilingual education, monolingual Spanish speakers are still deployed in regions with predominantly indigenous mother tongues, so that there is a lack of suitable, adequately trained bilingual teachers. The Apurímac region , on the other hand, has drawn up an ambitious plan for the “generalization of Quechua” (Lliwllapaq Runasimi, Quechua para todos) , which will run from 2008 to 2021 and which will go far beyond the IZE and affect all areas of public life. For this purpose, a written standard based on both Quechua variants spoken there ( Southern Quechua : Qusqu-Qullaw and Chanka ) is to be implemented. There has been a clear upswing in intercultural bilingual education as a result of the 2011 passing of the “Law that regulates the use, protection, development, recovery, promotion and dissemination of the original languages ​​of Peru” (Ley Nº 29735: Ley que regula el uso, preservación , desarrollo, recuperación, fomento y difusión de las lenguas originarias del Perú) , which was initiated and largely formulated by the Quechua- speaking congresswoman María Sumire . With this law for the defense of linguistic rights, indigenous people are entitled to intercultural bilingual education for the first time in the history of Peru. The criterion for establishing this claim as an indigenous community can be language or self-ascription as an indigenous person. On this basis, schools for IZE for the recovery of indigenous languages ​​are set up, where the children have already grown up with Spanish. Examples of this are Cocama-Cocamilla , Lamas-Quechua and Cajamarca-Quechua as well as various languages ​​in an urban context, where the indigenous language is learned as a second language by the students. On the basis of this language law (Ley de Lenguas) , an official ethnolinguistic map for intercultural bilingual education was created by the Ministry of Education (MINEDU), which forms a basis for the regional implementation of the IZE in the various regional languages. According to data from the Peruvian Ministry of Education in 2013, 21% of Peru's public schools were recognized as providers of intercultural bilingual education, most of them in Apurímac with 67.3% (all with Quechua as an indigenous mother tongue or second language), followed by Ayacucho (59.7%) , mostly Quechua), Puno (53.3%, Aymara and Quechua), Cusco (50.2%, mostly Quechua, besides Asháninka and others), Áncash (39.1%) and Huancavelica (35%). However, this is still below the proportion of speakers of indigenous languages ​​according to official figures. This offer is also still aimed at the indigenous people and not the other way round to the Spanish speakers for bicultural and bilingual learning with indigenous language.

In most Latin American countries, such as Mexico, Peru and Bolivia, the IZE is under the control of the Ministry of Education. In contrast, the IZE in Ecuador has been established by the regional indigenous organizations themselves since an agreement between the government and the Indigenous Movement in Ecuador , linked to the establishment of the National Directorate for Intercultural Bilingual Education DINEIB (Dirección Nacional de Educacion Intercultural Bilingue) in 1988 Members of the umbrella organizations ECUARUNARI and CONAIE - self-governing. Indigenous peoples appointed the teachers and school principals, drafted curricula and wrote textbooks. Research from 2008 indicates, however, that to date no fundamental turning point has been reached in the decline of indigenous languages ​​including Kichwa and Shuar . Even in Otavalo and Cotacachi , where there is a Kichwa - middle class there and indigenous mayors, many young people do not speak more Kichwa. Even parents who are members of the indigenous movement often send their children to purely Spanish-speaking schools, as these are much better equipped than the bilingual rural schools. In 2008, a motion in parliament to include Kichwa as a nationwide official language with equal rights alongside Spanish in the new constitution also failed. Instead, according to Article 2, Paragraph 2, Spanish is the official language of Ecuador; Kichwa and Shuar are official languages ​​for "intercultural relations", the other indigenous languages ​​for the "official use of the [respective] indigenous peoples". In February 2009, President Rafael Correa decided to subordinate the IZE to the administration of the Ministry of Education and thus to restrict the cultural autonomy of the indigenous movement. While the CONAIE fiercely fights this measure, among others the Kichwa poet Ariruma Kowii , who has been undersecretary for "intercultural dialogue" at the Ministry of Education since 2006 , defends the government's actions and accuses CONAIE of having "indoctrinated" the pupils and students.

Obstacles and Achievements

In almost all Latin American countries, the IZE suffers from inadequate facilities, in particular from the lack of authentic reading texts in the indigenous language, but also from a lack of textbooks and poor training of teachers. In the multilingual Amazon region of Peru, for example, the majority of the teachers employed in the “bilingual” schools only speak Spanish or another indigenous language, but not the pupils' mother tongue. The consequences are still poor school results. But even in rural schools in the largely Quechua-speaking province of Canas (K'ana suyu, Departamento Cusco) there were still many Quechua teachers employed in 2010 who, to the chagrin of students and parents, did not speak Quechua with the students. A lack of motivation on the part of teachers to strengthen the indigenous language or inadequate training often lead to the fact that in reality the indigenous language is neglected and the model of the transition to the majority language is continued. Discrimination against indigenous languages ​​in the majority society is seen as the most important obstacle for the ICT, which leads to indigenous people not professing their culture and language. For their children's social advancement, parents see it as essential to speak the majority language. This has led some indigenous parents to reject the IZE on the assumption that it neglects Spanish. Therefore, a general upgrading of indigenous languages ​​in society is required for a functioning ICU. One step in such a direction could be the binding bilingualism of government or administrative employees, i.e. compulsory knowledge of an indigenous language, as it has been provided for in Bolivia since 2009 at least on paper (Article 5 of the constitution). Other domains of the majority language in which indigenous languages ​​such as Quechua have not yet come into play are, for example, mass media, literature and literary translations, and industry.

Comparative studies on the learning success of children consistently show, however, that pupils in the IZE regularly achieve better results on average than their classmates in monolingual classes without using their mother tongue. This also applies to the skills in the second language (majority language).

literature

  • Colin Baker (2006): Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, (England). 4th ed. (English)
  • Luis Enrique López (2006): De resquicios a boquerones. La educación intercultural bilingüe en Bolivia, Plural Editores & PROEIB Andes, La Paz. PDF online, 8 MB

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Colin Baker (2006): Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, (England). 4th ed. P. 215.
  2. ^ Decreto Ley No. 21156 que reconoce el quechua como lengua oficial de la República  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF)@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / venus.unive.it  
  3. ^ Constitution of Peru from 1993 . Art. 48
  4. ^ Nancy H. Hornberger (1988): Bilingual Education and Language Maintenance: A Southern Peruvian Quechua Case. Dordrecht (NL), Foris Publications.
  5. ^ República de Ecuador, Constitución de 1998
  6. ↑ a b Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador from 2008 ( Memento of the original from January 19, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 507 kB). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.asambleanacional.gov.ec
  7. ↑ Ana Saroli: Intercultural bilingual education and the officialization of culture in Peru ( Memento of the original from July 20, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 139 kB). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / bibliotecavirtualut.suagm.edu
  8. ↑ a b New Constitution of the State of Bolivia from 2009 ( Memento of the original from May 21, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Article 5. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.presidencia.gob.bo
  9. ↑ Carmen López Flórez: La EIB en Bolivia: un modelo para armar. Plural Editores, La Paz 2005. pp. 46-54.
  10. ↑ Carmen López Flórez: EIB - Modelo para armar. Reflexions sobre la propuesta de uso de lenguas de la Reforma Educativa de Bolivia . Tesis, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Cochabamba 2000. p. 30.
  11. ↑ Ley No. 1565. Ley de la Reforma Educativa del 7 de Julio de 1994
  12. ↑ Ley educativa 070 "Avelino Siñani - Elizardo Pérez" N ° 070 . La Paz, December 20, 2010.
  13. ↑ Rosaleen Howard in interview and article What can we learn from efforts to save an ancient South American language? Quechua dates back to the Incas and is spoken from Colombia to Chile. We speak to a specialist in Quechua about the fight to preserve the 2,000 year old language . The Guardian , Nov. 18, 2014.
  14. ^ Nación Quechua critica sistema educativo. 29 de enero de 2010, LimaNorte.com .
  15. ↑ Pronunciamiento de ANAMEBI del 31 de octubre de 2009 en Lima sobre la situación de la EIB en el Perú ( Memento of the original of July 25, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / observatorio.atriumlinguarum.org
  16. ↑ Dolores Ayay: Cada vez son menos las personas que hablan quechua. El Presidente de la Academia Regional de Quechua, pidió ayuda a las autoridades. Panorama Cajamarquino, January 19, 2011 ( Memento of the original from February 1, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.panoramacajamarquino.com
  17. ↑ Focus Latin America, January 21, 2011. Peru, Cajamarca: Bilingual training only paper tigers
  18. ↑ Rachel Chase: Peru faces challenges in education for indigenous children. Bilingual education a necessity in many regions ( Memento of the original dated July 4, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Peru This Week, September 13, 2013.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.peruthisweek.com
  19. ^ Gobierno Regional Apurímac, Dirección Regional de Educación Apurímac: Hawa muchuykunawan tupanapaq huknisqalla sayarina wata. Lliwllapaq Runasimi. General plan. Generalización del Quechua en la Región de Apurímac 2008-2021 ( Memento of the original from February 1, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Abancay, 2009.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / saywa.org.pe
  20. ↑ Ley Nº 29735 - Ley que regula el uso, preservación, desarrollo, recuperación, fomento y difusión de las lenguas originarias del Perú ( Memento of the original from April 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked . Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , July 5, 2011. Culturaperu.org ( Memento of the original from March 13, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. or N ° 29735 Yupayniyuq ley. Quechua Cusco Collao ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / culturaperu.org @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / culturaperu.culturaperu.org  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / publicaciones.cultura.gob.pe
  21. ^ Rosaleen Howard: Quechua Language in the Andes today. Between statistics, the state, and daily life . In: Paul Heggarty, Adrian J. Pearce (2011), History and Language in the Andes .
  22. ↑ Serafín Coronel Molina: Quechua language and education policy in the Peruvian highlands . In: Francis M. Hult, Kendall A. King (2011), Educational Linguistics in Practice: Applying the Local Globally , pp. 140–153, therein p. 147.
  23. ↑ Myriam Yataco, Políticas de estado y la exclusión de lenguas indígenas en el Perú . In: Droit et Cultures 63, 2012/1, pp. 11-142. L'Harmattan editions. María Sumire, pp. 128-132.
  24. ↑ Ley N ° 29735 busca recuperar y difundir las lenguas originarias del Perú . La República, July 6, 2011.
  25. ↑ a b Perú, Ministerio de Educación, Dirección General de Educación Intercultural, Bilingüe y Rural: Documento Nacional de Lenguas Originarias del Perú .
  26. ↑ Juan Galiano, Entrevista al Director de Lenguas Indígenas del Viceministerio de Interculturalidad, José Antonio Vásquez Medina: Una ley llamada a revitalizar las lenguas originarias . Revista Parlante, Centro Guaman Poma de Ayala, Cusco, undated. Read June 24, 2014.
  27. ↑ 21% de colegios públicos del Perú ofrecen servicio de educación bilingüe ( Memento of the original of May 30, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Radio Pachamama, Puno, March 9, 2013.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.pachamamaradio.org
  28. ^ A b Carmen Martínez Novo, FLACSO-Ecuador: Is the Cultural Project of the Indigenous Movement in Crisis? Some Ethnographic Remarks on the Ambiguities of Intercultural Bilingual Education in Ecuador (Prepared for delivery at the 2009 Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, June 11-14 2009) (PDF; 68 kB)
  29. ↑ Marc Becker, Upside Down World: Indigenous organizations support Ecuador's new constitution
  30. ↑ El control de la Dineib profundiza la pugna entre Conaie y Gobierno. El Universo, 8 of March 2010
  31. ↑ Željko Crnčić Correa and the CONAIE. How do indigenous activists view the constitutional process and the Correa government in Ecuador? ILA-Info No. 316 ( Memento of the original from June 9, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ila-bonn.de
  32. ↑ a b c Anna Saroli: Can Quechua Survive? CSQ, Issue 25.2 (Summer 2001). Endangered Languages, Endangered Lives
  33. ↑ Aula intercultural, Lima, 1 de octubre, 2009: Los pueblos indígenas reciben “la peor educación del Perú” ( Memento of the original of June 20, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.aulaintercultural.org
  34. ↑ Antonieta Conde Marquina: Ishkay rimayniyku: Prácticas, Discursos y expectativas en torno as uso del quechua en Taypitunga, Layo, K'ana suyupi . Tesis presentada a la Universidad Mayor de San Simón, en cumplimiento parcial de los requisitos para la obtención del título de Magister en Educación Intercultural Bilinguale. Asesora de tesis: Dra. Inge Sichra. Cochabamba (Bolivia) 2011. pp. 130f.
  35. ↑ A survey of 1,347 indigenous parents in Bolivia in 2003 showed a rejection of the IZE of 13.5% and approval of 86.5%, whereby among Quechua and Aymara parents the rejection was almost a fifth compared to a good four fifths of approval. See Luis Enrique López (2006): De resquicios a boquerones. La educación intercultural bilingüe en Bolivia, Plural Editores & PROEIB Andes, La Paz, page 244.
  36. ^ Nancy H. Hornberger and Serafin Coronel-Molina (2004): Quechua language shift, maintenance, and revitalization in the Andes: The case for language planning. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 167, 9-67. Chapter 2.1. Linguistic ideologies and language attitudes (pp 14-16)
  37. ↑ Luis Enrique López (2006): De resquicios a boquerones. La educación intercultural bilingüe en Bolivia, Plural Editores & PROEIB Andes, La Paz. (Eficiencia, pp 395-401.) Online PDF 8 MB .

Remarks

  1. ↑ Precisely at the equator it is problematic to speak of a solstice, depending on whether the place is north or south of the equator - both can be the case in Ecuador - it is a summer or winter solstice . Since the Inti Raymi is best known from the tradition of festivities in the Inca capital Cusco, which is located far south , it is usually referred to as a winter solstice festival.