Loewenfeld Navy Brigade

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Controversial memorial stone for the marine brigade in Bottrop-Kirchhellen

The Loewenfeld Marine Brigade , also known as the 3rd Marine Brigade , was a voluntary corps after the First World War that was formed from members of the former Imperial Navy .

Event history

On the instructions of Reichswehr Minister Gustav Noske on February 3, 1919, Corvette Captain Wilfried von Loewenfeld set up the 3rd Marine Brigade as a volunteer corps in Kiel from formerly imperial naval members. Wilhelm Canaris , who had already been part of von Loewenfeld's closest circle, played a major role in this . At the beginning of March 1919 the brigade was about 1,500 men strong.

It was anti-republican, anti-democratic and anti-Semitic. The later journalist Axel Eggebrecht , who briefly belonged to her as a young man in Kiel, left her not least because of this anti-Semitism. He had seen members of the brigade mistreat a Jew in Kiel. The brigade was composed of "reactionary and radicalized ... naval officers". The public appearance corresponded to this: "With waving naval war flags our trains drove through Germany, wagons and steel helmets marked with swastikas", so the first general staff officer of the brigade Ulrich von Bose in retrospect. With the colors black, white and red of the "Reich War Flag" - instead of the "constitutional colors" black, red and gold - and this political commitment with the swastika symbol, the right-wing extremist opponents of the democratic republic publicly expressed their willingness to do so Elimination by force of arms.

In the summer of 1919, the Reich government dispatched the Loewenfeld Freikorps to mixed-ethnic Upper Silesia, on the one hand, against Polish voluntary organizations who advocated the annexation to Poland, and on the other hand, to end a wave of strikes in the Upper Silesian industrial area. During the winter of 1919-20 it was near Wroclaw in the Border Guard East used. This was followed by an assignment in the Baltic States. There the Freikorps pursued their own goals. For many of those involved it was "simply a matter of stealing prey". The units used "unrestrained violence", including in massacres that killed thousands, and also against Latvian allies. One battalion of the brigade remained permanently stationed in Kiel.

During the Kapp-Lüttwitz Putsch in March 1920, the brigade supported the attempted coup by the occupation of Wroclaw, but cleared the city again after the failure of the putschists. During the occupation, von Loewenfeld had tortured and killed those arrested by volunteer corps members.

In March 1920, Magnus von Levetzow , head of the Baltic Sea Naval Station, who was in support of the Kapp-Lüttwitz Putsch after its failure, deployed a battalion of the Freikorps under Corvette Captain Franz Claassen to suppress the general strike against the putschists. The workers had set up a militia organized by the workers' parties and the security police, which drove out the Claassen battalion. Some members of the brigade defected to the workers' militia. The battalion was now ordered to the Ruhr.

The Reich government sent the entire brigade to the Bottrop area in April to fight the Ruhr uprising . During the occupation of the city, which followed its siege and bombardment with artillery by the Freikorps, the cellar of the town hall became "a real torture cellar", according to a contemporary witness report that recalls the descriptions of events in later SA torture cellars: "During the beating, the beaten had to shout: 'Long live the 3rd Marine Brigade.'" After his release, the 18-year-old worker Joseph Krämer had to suspend six shifts due to his inability to work. On April 27, 1920, 19-year-old Maria Lippert from Bottrop was beaten almost unconscious in one of the cells with a riding whip and a rubber club and raped by Sergeant Adler of the Loewenfeld Brigade. The Freikorps justified her "arrest" by saying that she was a medic in the Red Ruhr Army and had stolen a horse. After her rape, she was brought before an "extraordinary court martial," which she had to acquit. Having had multiple operations, Maria Lippert was unable to work for years.

In quoting the " Hunsrede " of the former emperor, according to information from the brigade officer Friedrich Rieve, "Pardon ... not given." The imperial stipulation following this sentence that prisoners should not be taken meant in the conquered village of Raesfeld on 26. March 1920 that, under the orders of Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière, the prisoners in the village inn were brought to a “court martial” and “after brief determinations shot”. When a team truck "with a big red flag, a field kitchen attached, ... unsuspecting" drove into the village, he was "killed by a hand grenade that burst directly over the car and killed the woman sitting in the field kitchen, brought to a halt ”(Ulrich von Bose) and then shot at with a machine gun. A sergeant killed "the survivors with the butt of a rifle." Four prisoners were shot dead in a forest in Bottrop-Eigen by "heavily armed soldiers accompanied". Reason: You tried to escape. A worker who had already surrendered his weapons and had not participated in the fighting himself was taken out of the house. Kapitänleutnant Meyerhofer "had him shot without investigation." On May 17, 1920, two miners, one member of the USPD and the other non-party, were arrested by "army detectives" of the naval brigade in Bottrop . “There was nothing against both of them.” They were transported by train to Paderborn and shot “on the run” during the night and the bodies robbed.

In mid-May 1920, the order for dissolution following the specifications of the Versailles Treaty was issued, which, however, was not fully implemented until two years later. After the deployment in the Ruhr area, the members of the unit were initially largely taken over into the Reichsmarine. This was preceded by a military evaluation of the experiences in the Ruhr, which had come to the conclusion that "the brigade ... had shown little discipline", but "war spirit". The relatives should "be treated like sick people", but "the human material" was "good, especially the officers and NCOs." From the end of 1920, parts of the Freikorps formed the special police of the Upper Silesian Self-Protection and acted conspiratorially against actual and supposed members of the also conspiratorial Polska Organizacja Wojskowa as well as against German "traitors" and French members of the Inter-Allied Commission to monitor the demilitarization of Germany. The founder of this "special police" Heinz Oskar Hauenstein , later a founding member of the Berlin SA, boasted in a court case in 1921 that his organization was responsible for more than 200 murders he described as "Feme". According to Hauenstein, there was no consideration of international law or traditional war customs during this mission.

Reception history

As early as 1922, Emil Julius Gumbel's book "Four Years of Political Murder" was published, which took a detailed position on the acts of violence committed by members of the von Loewenfeld Freikorps. In doing so, the author exposed himself to violent anti-Semitic and anti-left attacks by the Weimar Right, which led to his fleeing Germany as early as 1933.

Soon after the Nazi seizure of power, publications appeared that addressed the naval brigade and included those in commemorative lists on the "Blood Chronicle of Marxism" and others. Ä. The victim balance was reversed. In 1935 there was a representation from the hand of the Brigadefuhrer von Loewenfeld in a propaganda pamphlet "German soldiers" prepared for war. In 1938 a publicist by the publicist Ernst von Salomon appeared , in which the brigade was included and received a positive evaluation. It was not the only one that von Salomon accepted them into.

This view was continued in the 1950s / 60s after former members of the Freikorps joined the "Comradeship of the 3rd Marine Brigade v. Loewenfeld ”. In 1963 the comradeship published a memorial, and by 1988 it published the circular Winkspruch . Since the 1950s she has held commemorative events in Bottrop and Kirchhellen at Easter. Until at least the 1970s there were public "Great Marine Evenings" in Bottrop with the participation of former members of the Free Corps, who were celebrated as proven anti-communists after they had "successfully fought against Spartakist groups in the Ruhr area".

The ns-affine journalist Erich Kern was one of the bearers of an honorable memorial in several publications in the 1960 / 70s . "Stunned, disgusted and sometimes outraged" as well as "hostile" the former "frontline soldiers" of the Loewenfeld and Ehrhardt naval brigades would have listened to "the pathetic phrases of freedom, equality and brotherhood" (1961, 1967, 1971).

At the Bottrop-Kirchhellen cemetery, an "honorary grave" was laid out for those who died in the brigade. In 1960 Friedrich Rieve laid a wreath there on the occasion of an official commemoration ceremony on the anniversary of the mission. The adjoining Loewenfeldstrasse, which was renamed Johannesstrasse by the local council in 1947, was later given its name again from the Nazi era and was named after the Freikorps. This naming led to controversies in local politics and requests to change the street name. Renaming was rejected by the district council in 2010/11 following a joint application by the Greens , the Left and the DKP and in 2019 after a citizen application by the Bottrop publicist Sahin Aydın. Aydın had proposed that Loewenfeldstrasse be renamed after Alois Fulneczek, who was murdered in the court prison in Bottrop by members of the Freikorps Lichtschlag in February 1919 . Also included in the discussion is the memorial stone for members of the voluntary corps in the Kirchhellen cemetery.

Wilfried von Loewenfeld's tomb in the north cemetery in Kiel with a commemorative plaque

At the north cemetery in Kiel there is an “honor grave” for the leader of the brigade and a foundling, set in 1968 as a place of honor, with the inscription “Ehr, Courage and Loyalty, until I fall” for the brigade itself. The grave received its special status 1968 by the mayor of Kiel Ida Hinz (SPD). "Honorable" is meanwhile in public discussion. The city archives are commissioned to research and evaluate the role of the Freikorps and Loewenfeld. "It is envisaged that the grave will lose its status in 2020 - 100 years on time after the Kapp Putsch."

In 1988 Ernst von Salomon's font appeared with the appreciation of the Marine Brigade in a history revisionist publishing house that also publishes Robert Hepp , David Irving , Otto Ernst Remer , Paul Rassinier , Paul Findley , Johann von Leers and Pierre Krebs .

Professional biography overview

An unsystematic overview of the ranks and honorable titles achieved by Freikorps officers shows that many of them remained members of military or paramilitary organizations after the naval brigade was dissolved. There are continuities from membership of the Freikorps to the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic and the NS Wehrmacht to the West German Bundeswehr . A large number of these officers held high positions in the SA and SS. Some of them were directly involved in leading positions in the Nazi mass crimes.

The ranks indicate the highest rank of the person, not the one in the 3rd Marine Brigade.

  • Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière , Vice Admiral zV
  • Fritz Antek Berger , sea captain
  • Erich Bey , Rear Admiral, went down with the "Scharnhorst" in 1943
  • Hasso von Bredow, rear admiral
  • Karl-Friedrich Brill, frigate captain of the reserve
  • Wilhelm Butterbrodt or Tackenberg (from 1932), rear admiral
  • Rolf Carls , battalion commander in the naval brigade, later admiral general
  • Friedrich Christiansen , aviator general in the Luftwaffe , NSFK corps leader, assessor in the People's Court , Wehrmacht commander in chief of the occupied Netherlands, sentenced to twelve years in prison in 1948 for burning down the village of Putten and deporting the men
  • Franz Claassen , battalion commander of the brigade, rear admiral zV
  • Siegfried Claassen, Rear Admiral z. V.
  • Robert Eyssen , commander of the auxiliary cruiser "Komet", known from the attack on Nauru (1940)
  • Heinrich Georg Wilhelm Graf Finck von Finckenstein , NSDAP (1925ff.), SA (1929ff.), SA-Obergruppenführer
  • Erich Förste , Admiral, after the end of the Nazi regime editor-in-chief of the " Marine-Rundschau " (1953–1957), honored in the " German Soldier Yearbook " of the Volkischer Schild publishing house
  • Friedrich Frisius , Vice Admiral, appointed by Hitler in September 1944 as "politically more reliable" than his predecessor as "Fortress Commanders" of Dunkirk: "The affinity between the naval command and Hitler was particularly evident in the defense of the German fortresses in France in 1944/45. "
  • Hans-Joachim Gadow, Rear Admiral
  • Carl-Siegfried Ritter von Georg , frigate captain z. V., from 1933 "flagship Nazi" in the "management and supervisory board of the [Frankfurter] Adlerwerke", SS-Obersturmführer and head of a special staff at the armaments ministry
  • Dr. jur. Josef Gronover , no activities at sea, NSDAP (1933–1945), SA, syndic of the Westphalian Farmers' Association, city mayor of Dorsten , mayor (1933–1945). After the end of the Nazi regime, his measures for the forced sterilization of Dorsten citizens became known.
  • Günther Gumprich, Commander Auxiliary Cruiser "Thor" (1941)
  • Kurt Hartwig , Corvette Captain
  • Heinz Hauenstein , organizer of the NSDAP in Northern Germany (1922), founding member of the Berlin SA, publisher of the Freikorps magazine " Der Reiter gen Osten " (1929–1944), see above
  • August Heißmeyer , 1939 inspector of the concentration camps and the reinforced skull standards , Napola inspector, SS-Obergruppenführer, General of the Waffen-SS, went into hiding after the end of the Nazi regime, sentenced as the main culprit to several years imprisonment and deprivation of property
  • Reinhold Knobloch, takeover in the Reichsmarine, then Kriegsmarine (until 1936), rear admiral
  • Hans Kolbe , battalion commander in the Freikorps, takeover in the Reichsmarine, then in the NS-Navy, there Rear Admiral, NSDAP (1934ff.), District Administrator in Schleswig (1934ff.), Gauamtsleiter des Reichskolonialbund , SD (1941),
  • Wilfried von Loewenfeld , Reichsmarine, Vice Admiral
  • Hans-Joachim von Mellenthin , frigate captain
  • Raul Mewis , admiral
  • Hans Karl Meyer , Rear Admiral of the Navy, Flotilla Admiral of the German Navy
  • Hans Michahelles , Rear Admiral
  • Hans Mirow , Rear Admiral
  • Cassius Freiherr von Montigny , police officer (1920–1935), NSDAP (1932ff.), General SS, SS Division Totenkopf , 1st General Staff Officer, Oberführer; "Totally without pity, ..., icy aristocrat"
  • Konrad Nussbaum , captain at sea, criminal director, head of the defense department of the Gestapa (from 1933), NSDAP (from 1937), SA, SS, Sturmbannführer shot dead in May 1945 by a " werewolf " member as an alleged NS opponent
  • Rudolf Peters , Rear Admiral
  • Oswald Pohl , Reichsmarine (from 1920), head of administration of the SS (1935), SS-Obergruppenführer, General of the Waffen-SS, head of the SS Economic and Administrative Office (from 1942), sentenced to death in Nuremberg (1947) and executed (1951)
  • Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer , Reichsmarine, Hitler's Adjutant in the Navy (1935–1945), Rear Admiral
  • Dr. Dr. Otto Rasch , Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutzbund (from 1919), NSDAP (from 1931), SS-Brigadführer, leader of Einsatzgruppe C , responsible, among other things, for the massacre in Babyn Yar , accused in Nuremberg, proceedings suspended for illness
  • Hans Ramshorn , SA Brigade Leader
  • Hans Rauch , Major General (Air Force)
  • Friedrich Rieve, Vice Admiral
  • Bernhard Rogge , Rear Admiral
  • Richard Rothe-Roth , Imperial Navy, Reichsmarine, Kriegsmarine, Rear Admiral
  • Werner Scheer , Rear Admiral
  • Max Schenitzki, Rear Admiral (1943)
  • Albert Leo Schlageter , 1922 member of the "Greater German Workers' Party", a substitute organization of the banned NSDAP, executed in 1923 for terrorist acts during the occupation of the Ruhr, celebrated by the NSDAP as the "first soldier of the Third Reich"
  • Wilhelm Schmalz , Lieutenant General (Air Force)
  • Hubert Schmundt , Admiral
  • Werner Schönermark, Rear Admiral
  • Joachim Schwatlo-Gesterding , Major General of the Wehrmacht , Brigadier General in the Bundeswehr and finally Lieutenant General
  • Kurt Slevogt , Vice Admiral
  • Siegfried Sorge , Rear Admiral
  • Rudolf Stange, Reichsmarine, Kriegsmarine, Vice Admiral in the occupied Netherlands
  • Walter Steiner , rear admiral
  • Werner Stichling , Rear Admiral
  • Ernst Stieringer, Dipl.-Ing., Reichsmarine, Kriegsmarine, Head of the Armaments Inspectorate XI a (until 1945), Vice Admiral (1945)
  • Hans Stohwasser , Vice Admiral
  • Ludwig Stummel , Rear Admiral
  • Clamor von Trotha, Reichsmarine, Kriegsmarine, Rear Admiral (1945)
  • Hans Voss , rear admiral
  • Georg Waue, rear admiral, fortress commander of Pola / Istria in the final phase, refusal of unconditional surrender, executed after the liberation of the city by the Yugoslav People's Liberation Army on May 8, 1945
  • Carl Weber, Rear Admiral (Ing.)
  • Ralph Wenninger , Imperial Navy, Reichsmarine, Air Force, General der Flieger
  • Kurt Weyher , Rear Admiral, activities for rearmament after the end of the Nazi regime (Vice President of the German Navy Federation, State Commissioner of the West German Society for Military Studies) and co-author of a memorandum on the Nazi Navy, contributions to the German Soldier 's Yearbook published by Schild-Verlag
  • Waldemar Winther , rear admiral

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Michael Mueller : Canaris - Hitler's chief of defense. Propylaea, Berlin 2006, ISBN 978-3-549-07202-8 , pp. 84, 89 f.
  2. ↑ Alexander Gallus , Heimat "Weltbühne": An intellectual history in the 20th century, Göttingen 2012, p. 157.
  3. ^ Quote from Ulrich von Bose in his contribution Advance against Essen in the anthology by Ernst von Salomon (ed.): The book from the German Freikorpskäufer , Berlin 1938, reproduced by Paul Fröhlich: "The underground battle". The Defense Industry and Armaments Office 1924–1943 , Schöningh, Paderborn 2018, p. 73.
  4. ↑ Werner Bräckow, The History of the German Marine Engineer Officer Corps, Stalling Verlag, Oldenburg 1974, p. 134.
  5. ↑ Hanns Joachim Wolfgang Koch , the German Civil War: a history of the German and Austrian Volunteer Corps, 1918-1923, Ullstein Verlag, Berlin 1974, p 249th
  6. ↑ Axel Eggebrecht: Half the way. Interim balance of an era . Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1975, p. 93; Johannes Bühler, From Bismarck Empire to Divided Germany, de Gruyter, Berlin 1960, p. 523.
  7. ^ Dieter Pohl , The rule of the armed forces. German military occupation and native population in the Soviet Union 1941–1944, Munich 2009, 2nd edition, p. 35.
  8. ↑ Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe, article on Wilfried von Loewenfeld, see: The street renaming practice in Westphalia and Lippe during National Socialism, [1] .
  9. ↑ Dirk Dähnhardt / Gerhard Granier (eds.), Kapp-Putsch in Kiel, Kiel 1980 (communications from the Society for Kiel City History, vol. 66).
  10. ↑ Klaus Kuhl, Victims of Sailors / Workers' Uprising, February events 1919 and Kapp-Putsch 1920, n.d. n.d. (as of July 31, 2019), pp. 7f., 31f., See: [2] , source basis : Arne Miltkau, The Kapp-Lüttwitz Putsch in Kiel. Background and implications. Kiel 2000 (scientific term paper in the history seminar of the University of Kiel), p. 51; Lieutenant Kemsies: The behavior of the security police in Kiel towards the military revolt, April 9, 1920, Schleswig-Holstein State Archives LAS 301 4458. (accessible online at www.kurkuhl.de).
  11. ↑ Erhard Lucas, March Revolution 1920. Negotiation attempts and their failure, counter-strategies of government and military, the defeat of the insurrection movement, the white terror, vol. 3, Frankfurt a. M. 1978, p. 322.
  12. ^ Heinrich Teuber : For the socialization of the Ruhr mining industry . Verlag Roter Stern, Frankfurt a. M. 1973, p. 122.
  13. ↑ According to the Bottrop city archivist Heike Biskup in: Hans-Walter Scheffler, Storm on Town Hall, WAZ, July 10, 2007, see also: [3] .
  14. ↑ All information in this section based on: Klaus Theweleit, Männerphantasien, Berlin 2019; Paul Fröhlich: "The underground battle". The Defense Economy and Armaments Office 1924–1943 , Schöningh, Paderborn 2018, p. 73 f.
  15. ^ Heinrich Teuber: For the socialization of the Ruhr mining industry. Verlag Roter Stern, Frankfurt a. M. 1973, p. 121.
  16. ^ Emil Julius Gumbel : Four years of political murder . (Reprint). Verlag Das Wunderhorn, Heidelberg 1980, ISBN 3-88423-011-5 , p. 61.
  17. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold: The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 134.
  18. ^ Daniel Siemens : Sturmabteilung. The history of the SA . Siedler, Munich 2019, ISBN 978-3-8275-0051-9 , p. 18.
  19. ↑ This and the previous information: Bernhard Sauer, " Traitors had been shot in large numbers here." The Fememorde in Upper Silesia in 1921. (PDF; 110 kB) In: Zeitschrift für Geschichtswwissenschaft , vol. 54, 2006, ISSN  0044-2828 , Pp. 644-662, here: p. 656.
  20. ^ Stefan Zwicker: "National Martyrs": Albert Leo Schlageter and Julius Fučík. Hero cult, propaganda and culture of remembrance. Schöningh, Paderborn 2006, ISBN 978-3-506-72936-1 , p. 48.
  21. ^ Emil Julius Gumbel, Four Years of Political Murder, Berlin-Fichtenau 1922.
  22. ^ Adolf Ehrt / Hans Roden , Terror. The Blood Chronicle of Marxism in Germany, ed. from the Association of German Anti-Communist Associations e. V., Berlin / Leipzig 1934, p. 53ff.
  23. ^ Wilfried von Loewenfeld, Das Freikorps von Loewenfeld. 3rd Marine Brigade, in: Hans Roden (ed.), German soldiers, Leipzig 1935, pp. 149-158, p. 155.
  24. Jump up ↑ Ernst von Salomon, The Book of the German Freikorps Fighter, Berlin 1938, passim.
  25. ↑ G. Schult: The 3rd Marine Brigade v. Loewenfeld 1919–1920 . Self-published by the comradeship of the 3rd Marine Brigade from Loewenfeld, Plön am See 1963.
  26. ↑ Erhard Lucas, March Revolution 1920. Negotiation attempts and their failure, counter-strategies of government and military, the defeat of the insurrection movement, the white terror, vol. 3, Frankfurt a. M. 1978, p. 467.
  27. ^ Heinrich Teuber: For the socialization of the Ruhr mining industry . Verlag Roter Stern, Frankfurt a. M. 1973, p. 125.
  28. ↑ Paul Fröhlich: "The underground battle". The Defense Economy and Armaments Office 1924–1943 , Schöningh, Paderborn 2018, p. 74.
  29. ↑ Gel Center. Portal [of the city of Gelsenkirchen] for urban and contemporary history, The Red Ruhr Army in the Ruhr War 1920, see: [4] .
  30. ↑ LebensArt-regional.de: One name, one application, many questions as well as the brochure of the DKP council group Bottrop: Loewenfeld. Who was that? A documentation . Bottrop 2000.
  31. ↑ Johanna Wiening, district representatives from Kirchhellen say no to the renaming of Loewenfeldstrasse, in: Dorstener Zeitung, March 15, 2019.
  32. ^ Norbert Jänecke, dispute over Loewenfeld Brigade flares up again in Bottrop, in: WAZ, local section, March 19, 2019.
  33. ↑ Esther Geißlinger, Freikorps leader rests in honor, in: taz , January 10, 2019.
  34. ^ Publishing house for holistic research and culture, Struckum; see the publisher's assessment in: Fabian Virchow , Gegen den Zivilismus. International Relations and the Military in the Political Conceptions of the Extreme Right, Wiesbaden 2006, passim.
  35. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  36. ↑ Erhard Lucas , March Revolution 1920. Negotiation attempts and their failure, counter-strategies of government and military, the defeat of the insurrection movement, the white terror, vol. 3, Frankfurt a. M. 1978, p. 315.
  37. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  38. ↑ Bernd Bölscher, Hitler's navy in the land war effort. A documentation, Norderstedt 2015, p. 119.
  39. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  40. ↑ Dermot Bradley (ed.), Hans H. Hildebrand, Ernest Henriot: Deutschlands Admirale 1849-1945. The military careers of naval, engineering, medical, weapons and administrative officers with admiral rank. Volume 1: A-G. Biblio Verlag, Osnabrück 1988, ISBN 3-7648-1499-3 , p. 161.
  41. ↑ Gerhard Nestler, "Early on he found his way into the ranks of the nationalist fighters and then to Adolf Hitler", in: Frankenthal once and now, vol. 2017.
  42. ↑ Butterbrodt changed to the name Tackenberg in 1932. "It can be assumed that this happened because the previous name sounded Jewish.": Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  43. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  44. ↑ Dermot Bradley (ed.), Hans H. Hildebrand, Ernest Henriot: Deutschlands Admirale 1849-1945. The military careers of naval, engineering, medical, weapons and administrative officers with admiral rank. Volume 1: A-G. Biblio Verlag, Osnabrück 1988, ISBN 3-7648-1499-3 , pp. 205-206; Manfred Dörr: The knight's cross bearers of the surface forces of the navy. Volume 1: A-K. Biblio Verlag, Osnabrück 1995, ISBN 3-7648-2453-0 , pp. 116-121.
  45. ↑ Gerhard Hümmelchen, Die Deutschen Segelflieger 1935–1945 (edited by the Working Group for Defense Research), Munich 1976, p. 9.
  46. ↑ Harry Kuiper, Arnhem and the Aftermath. Airborne Assaults in the Netherlands, 1940-1945, Yorkshire (GB) 2019.
  47. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  48. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  49. ^ German Society for Heereskunde e. V. (Ed.), Zeitschrift für Heereskunde, born in 1983.
  50. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  51. ↑ See: Tim Schröder, The substance we all depend on, in: [5] .
  52. ^ Joachim Lilla / Martin Döring / Andreas Schulz, extras in uniform. The members of the Reichstag 1933–1945. A biographical manual. Including the Volkish and National Socialist members of the Reichstag from May 1924, Düsseldorf 2004, p. 140.
  53. ↑ Stephan Malinowski, From the king to the leader. Social decline and political radicalization in the German nobility between the Empire and the Führer State, Berlin 2003, 3rd, durchges. Ed., P. 579.
  54. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  55. ↑ See self-testimony: Erich Förste, Vom Freikorps zur Kriegsmarine, in: Hans Roden (Hrsg.), German soldiers. From the front-line army and free corps to the Reichswehr to the new Wehrmacht. With a foreword from Lieutenant General a. D. Baron v. Watter and final by Major Foertsch . With the cooperation of the German Society for Defense Policy and Defense Sciences and the Schlageter-Gedächtnis-Museum e. V., Leipzig 1935, pp. 102-106.
  56. ↑ German Soldiers' Year Book 1967, p. 11.
  57. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  58. ↑ Peter Lieb, Conventional War or Nazi Weltanschauung War? Warfare and the fight against partisans in France 1943/44, Munich 2007, p. 488.
  59. ↑ Rolf-Dieter Müller / Hans-Erich Volkmann, Die Wehrmacht: Mythos und Reality, Munich 2012, p. 253ff., There Dönitz's statement to Frisius about his appointment: "... I know that you do that with the greatest energy last means of defense will be exhausted. "
  60. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  61. ↑ Peter Broucek (ed.), A General in Twilight. The memories of Edmund Glaises von Horstenau, vol. 3, Vienna / Cologne / Graz 2005, 2., 2rg. Ed., P. 212.
  62. ↑ Ernst Kaiser / Michael Knorn, "We lived and slept among the dead". Arms production, forced labor and extermination in the Frankfurt Adlerwerke, Frankfurt a. M. 1998, p. 28.
  63. ^ Jörg Osterloh / Harald Wixforth, entrepreneur and Nazi crimes. Business elites in the "Third Reich" and in the Federal Republic of Germany, Frankfurt a. M./New York 2014, p. 59.
  64. ↑ Wolf Stegemann, In Dorsten was dealt with bureaucratic cold. Summoned to the police by the mayor for sterilization, in: Dorsten under the swastika, [6] .
  65. ↑ Wolf Stegemann / Andrea Schüller, Dorsten-Lexikon, 2015: [7] .
  66. ↑ Klaus Franken, From black-white-red to black-red-gold. The transition from naval officers of the Imperial Navy to the Navy of the Weimar Republic, Berlin 2018, p. 143.
  67. ↑ Horst H. Geerken, Hitler's Reach for Asia. The Third Reich and Dutch East Indies, Vol. 1, Norderstedt 2015, 2nd edition, pp. 191f.
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  69. ↑ Lawrence Sondhaus, German Submarine Warfare in World War I. The Onset of Total War at Sea, Lanham 2017, p. 222.
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