Niʿmatullāhīya

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Emblem of the order

The Niʿmatullāhīya is a Persian Sufi order named after the founder of the order, Niʿmatullāh Walī. It originated in the 14th century in southeast Persia and spread to India . Between the 16th and 18th centuries the order existed almost exclusively in the Indian Deccan ; it was not reintroduced into Persia until the end of the 18th century. The order, which was Shiite early in its history , is now one of the most widespread Sufi orders in Iran and also has numerous followers in the western world.

history

Mausoleum of the founder of the order, Shah Niʿmatullāh Walī in Mahan , Kerman Province , Iran ( National Monument )

The founder

Life

Shah Niʿmatullāh Nūr ad-Dīn ibn ʿAbdallāh Walī (born 1329 or 1330 in Aleppo ) was a Sunni Sufi and poet. His father Mīr ʿAbdallāh was one of the most important Sufis of his time and a descendant of the fifth imam Muhammad al-Bāqir (d. 732 or 736). His mother was descended from the Shabankara rulers of Fars . Already in childhood Niʿmatullāh was introduced to Sufism by his father and trained in Islamic legal doctrine ( fiqh ), theology , theosophy and rhetoric by various scholars in Shiraz . In his youth he traveled through many countries in search of a master and learned from numerous scholars. At the age of 24 he met the scholar and Sufi ʿAbdallāh al-Yāfiʿī (d. 1367) on the pilgrimage to Mecca , stayed with him until his death and was his successor . He then traveled through the region again and stayed, among other places, in Egypt and later in Transoxania , where he appeared for the first time as a representative of a new order. Especially during his several years' stay in Shahrisabz near Samarkand , he was able to bind a large number of nomads of Turkish descent , which ultimately led to Timur asking him to leave the region. From there Niʿmatullāh went to Herat , where he married the granddaughter of the poet Mīr Husainī Harawī (d. Approx. 1370). After a short stay in Mashhad , he settled in Kuhbanan, Kerman and finally in Mahan , where he lived and taught until his death in 1430/31.

Teachings and works

Niʿmatullāh did not regard Sufism as a privilege that was only available to certain people, but as the path of love and thus a need of all people. Therefore, he accepted all students who sincerely wanted to learn from him. He occupied himself with agriculture and also motivated his followers to pursue a job. Laziness and withdrawal lead to depression, in his opinion, while work and service to people strengthened the soul. Above all, serving other people and being kind are the best ways to purify your heart. In contrast to other Sufi orders that advocated withdrawal from society, Niʿmatullāh called for "solitude among people". He banned his followers from consuming hashish and opium , which was relatively common in his time, and also from wearing distinctive Sufi clothing, as the spiritual state should not be displayed. He was also of the opinion that the rules of Islam must be strictly observed because only a combination of Sharia and Tarīqa could lead to the truth. Niʿmatullāh made contact with and exchanged views with other scholars in all the places he traveled to. So his teachings came about under the influence of many scholars and orders. Early on in his training he dealt extensively with the teachings and works of the Andalusian Sufi and philosopher Ibn Arabi and integrated them into his own.

After he was 60 years old he started to write poetry. During his lifetime he achieved wide fame with his poems. His poetry was mostly written in the form of the Ghazel and dealt, among other things, with the wahdat al-wudschūd teaching. Later his poems were even understood and interpreted as predictions of important historical events. His divan is one of his most important works. In total, he wrote several hundred works, ranging from shorter exegetical essays on the Koran to treatises on the teachings of Ibn Arabi.

Relocation to India

Niʿmatullāh Walī's reputation spread throughout Persia and India during his lifetime. The Bahmanid king of the Dekkan, Ahmad Shah I (r. 1422-36), invited him to Bidar to his court, but he stayed in Mahan and instead sent his grandson Nūrullāh and a letter in which he nicknamed the ruler Walī gave. Ahmad Shah Wali greeted Nūrullāh with great joy and gave him his daughter as a wife. After Niʿmatullāh Walī's death, the ruler this time invited his son and successor Burhān ad-Dīn Chalīlullāh (1374-1460), who finally accepted this invitation. Chalīlullāh, his successors and the followers of the order had a good relationship with the Bahmanid court for years, entered into marriages with the ruling house and got political posts. However, they did not have much influence in society religiously or spiritually.

When he left Persia between 1433 and 1435, Burhān ad-Dīn Chalīlullāh Mahan left his son Mīr Schams ad-Dīn (d. Approx. 1450). After his death, the order no longer had an influential spiritual leader in Iran. When Shah Ismail I founded the Safavid state in 1501 and made the Twelve Shia the official state religion, all Sufi orders that were not Shiite had to leave the country or were pushed into peripheral regions. During this time the Niʿmatullāhīya developed into an officially Shiite order. The center was moved to Yazd and the members of the order initially had a good relationship with the Safavid court, married into the court and received political posts. However, when a family member, Amīr Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mīrmīrān, was involved in a rebellion at the time of Shah Abbas I (r. 1587–1629), the order fell out of favor. Over time, the Niʿmatullāhīya largely disappeared from Persia, even if the family held posts in Yazd until around 1671–72.

Relocation back to Persia

In 1770, the 13th successor of Niʿmatullāh Walī, Ridā ʿAlī Shāh Dakkanī (d. 1799), who was in India, sent his student Maʿsūm ʿAlī Shāh to Persia at the request of the remaining followers in Iran. Maʿsūm was received with great enthusiasm by the population and quickly won many followers. In Shiraz he met Faiz ʿAlī Shāh, his son Nūr ʿAlī Shāh (d. 1797) and Mushtāq ʿAlī Shāh (d. 1792), who joined him. At first they had a good relationship with the local Zand ruler Karīm Chān (d. 1779), but soon had to leave the city due to conflicts. Another Zand ruler, ʿAlī Murād Chān (d. 1785) in Isfahan , offered them refuge. With his support, the order was able to develop very well during this time. However, there were also disputes with ʿAlī Murād Chān, as the Niʿmatullāhī leaders blamed his dissolute lifestyle for his military failures and also the scholarship in Isfahan spoke out against the Sufis, as they perceived the increasing influence of the Niʿmatullāhīs as a threat. After Faiz ʿAlī Shah's death, they were persecuted and had to flee. While fleeing, Maʿsūm ʿAlī Shāh and Nūr ʿAlī Shāh even had their ears cut off by soldiers ʿAlī Murād Chāns.

In Mashhad , the Niʿmatullāhīs were finally given asylum. Maʿsūm traveled to Herat and then to India and sent Nūr ʿAlī Murād Chān and Mushtāq ʿAlī Murād Chān to Mahan. With the increasing popularity of the Sufis in Mahan, the opposition of Shiite scholarship to them increased again. The idea of ​​Nūr sAlī, which later also found general recognition in the order, that the Qutb , i.e. the Sufi master, was the actual representative of the hidden Imam , and his general criticism of Shiite scholarship certainly played an important role. Finally, in 1792, Muschtāq was stoned and killed together with other Sufis at a Friday sermon against Sufism. Nūr ʿAlī Shāh managed to flee again and went first to Karbala and then to Baghdad , where the Ottoman governor offered him protection. In Karbala he met Maʿsūm ʿAlī Shāh and the two went to Kermanshah together . The Shiite scholar Mohammad-Bāqer Behbehānī (d. 1801), who was also called "Sufi murderers" ( ṣūfī-kuš ) because of his sharp rejection and persecution of Sufis , finally ordered the execution of the Niʿmatullāhī leaders. Maʿsūm ʿAlī Shāh was poisoned in 1795 and Nūr ʿAlī Shāh, who had fled again, was killed two years later by followers of Behbehānī in Mosul . The Qutb of the order at that time, Muzaffar ʿAlī Shāh, was also poisoned in 1800. After Behbehānī's death, the conflict between the Niʿmatullāhīs and the Shiite scholars defused. The Niʿmatullāhīya conformed to them on some points and also practiced Taqīya in order to avoid further conflicts; the conditions for admission to the order were also made easier. Over the 19th century, the order grew, but also split into partially warring branches.

Splitting up of the order

The branches of the order
1. Gunābādī branch
2. Kawthar ʿAlī-Shahī branch
3. Dhū-r-Riyāsatain branch
4th Safī-ʿAlī-Shāhī branch
5. Shams-al-ʿUrafā branch

Maʿsūm ʿAlī Shāh and Nūr ʿAlī Shāh managed to reintroduce Sufism to Persia at the end of the 18th century and to secure its place in Persian society and culture, which has an impact to this day. After Behbehānī's death, the conflict between the scholars and the Sufis eased. This was also due to the fact that Husain ʿAlī Shāh (d. 1818), the next qutb designated by Nūr ʿAlī Shāh, invited to a rather inconspicuous and personal type of Sufism.

Husain's successor, Majdhūb ʿAlī Shāh (d. 1823), was the last qutb to head the order undivided. After his death, there was disagreement over the appointment of a successor, and the Niʿmatullāhīya split into three branches. The main branch was continued by a certain mast ʿAlī Shāh (d. 1837) and then Rahmat ʿAlī Shāh (d. 1861), who contributed to the spread of the order by setting up sheikhs in Iran, India and areas of what is now Turkey . After his death, the order split again.

After a series of further Qutbs, Javad Nurbakhsh (died October 10, 2008) was finally the successor of Mūnis ʿAlī Shāh (died 1953) at the age of 26. Javad was the first qutb of the order with a modern education, also wore western clothing and became professor of psychiatry at the medical faculty of the University of Tehran . He wrote numerous works in the field of psychology and Sufism and opened several Chanqāhs in Iran and later in the western world. He made a major contribution to the modernization of the order.

The current Qutb of the Order is his son Alireza Nurbakhsh, a doctor of philosophy from the University of Wisconsin and a practicing lawyer in London .

Spread to the west

Javad Nurbakhsh

Javad Nurbakhsh first traveled to the United States and Great Britain in 1974 , where the first chanqāhs outside Iran were also opened. After the Iranian Revolution in 1979, Nurbakhsh moved to the United States and to Great Britain in 1983. Over time, more and more chanqāhs have opened in America, European countries and even Australia and New Zealand . The order has estimated around 3,600 followers and nine sheikhs outside Iran. Even if the basic ideas of the order have remained unchanged, some points have been adapted to the circumstances in western countries.

The Chanqāhs represent people from different ethnic and social backgrounds. There are also a large number of Iranian exiles who left the country after the revolution and are rather unorthodox. In contrast to the Chanqāhs in Iran, there is no strict gender segregation and no veiling requirement for women. Apart from the Persian New Year and Ramadan , other Islamic and Shiite festivals tend not to be celebrated. A conversion to Islam is a prerequisite for joining the order , but the converts are not necessarily given Muslim names and the execution of the religious rules is left to them, as observing the Sharia is seen more as a private matter and also in the works of Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh is not unduly emphasized.

An important aspect in the self-image of the order in the West is the emphasis on the Persian origin of Sufism and thus also the Persian culture and language . Reference is also made to pre-Islamic Persian elements.

The order has its own website, which is accessible in 14 languages. Here one can get introductory information on the history of the order, the order's founder, Javad Nurbakhsh and the basic teachings and ideas of the Niʿmatullāhīya. In addition, one can find the next chanqāh in one's own environment and get in contact with the members.

The order has also had a publishing house (Khanaqahi-Ni'matu'llahi Publications) in New York since 1978 and has published the Sufi magazine in English and German every six months since 1988 , which has also been available online since 2012.

Doctrines and practices

Even if the Niʿmatullāhīya is today considered a Twelve Shiite order, the teaching shows deviations from the official theology of the Twelve Shia. The main difference lies in the appointment of the deputy of the hidden twelfth Imam. While the Twelve Shiite scholarship as a whole sees itself as the representative, according to the Niʿmatullāhīya only the Qutb is up to this task. This idea was developed by Nūr ʿAlī Shāh at the end of the 18th century and caused disputes with Shiite scholars even in his day. In order to avoid further conflicts, the idea of ​​the Qutb as representative is no longer openly proclaimed, but continues to exist in the teaching of the order.

Javad Nurbakhsh defines the goal of Sufism as knowing the truth. A Sufi is one who seeks the truth with love and devotion. Only the “perfect” who is free from his instinctual soul ( nafs ) can actually recognize the truth. This is manifested in the person of īAlī ibn Abī Tālib . ʿAlī is the best example because his perfection was self-worked, while that of the Prophet was a gift from God. ʿAlī achieved this status by learning from the Prophet. This master-disciple relationship is a model for the Sufi masters and their students. A dervish can attain truth ( ḥaqīqa ) by following the Sharia and giving himself to a master of what the Tarīqa represents. It is also important that the followers pursue an occupation, which has been one of the principles of practical life of the Niʿmatullāhīs since the founding of the order.

Javad Nurbaksh names five principles that all dervishes of the order should adhere to:

  1. Dhikr : Javad Nurbakhsh understands Dhikr as the undisturbed remembrance of God, in which one ignores everything else. There are different rules of conduct ( ādāb ) for the dhikr, ranging from ritual washing ( wuḍūʾ ) to a certain posture. In addition to the loud Dhikr ( ḏikr ǧalī ), which is usually performed together in meetings in the Chanqāh, there is also the preferred quiet Dhikr ( ḏikr ḫafī ), which can also be built into everyday life.
  2. Fikr : This is thinking about God, clearing the mind of everything else. In addition to the mind, the heart also plays a role, because in the reflection of the heart, God is the master and the motivation, and not the intellect.
  3. Murāqaba : Murāqaba, literally "observation, supervision, surveillance", describes a kind of meditation state in which the Sufi tries to concentrate only on God in his thoughts and thus to "die" in relation to the world and to be "reborn" in God. Again, there are certain rules of conduct and recommended postures.
  4. Muhāsaba : In Sufi terminology, Muhāsaba describes the rethinking of one's own deeds and thoughts on the way to God, who knows about every human act. There are three types: reflection on oneself, on the Sufi way and on the divine.
  5. Will : The will can refer to the daily pursuits and daily ritual prayers or the repetition of certain Quranic verses, hadiths and prayers that are assigned to the Sufi by the master.

Organization and hierarchy

There is a strict hierarchy within the order . At the top is the Qutb, whose Silsila must reach as far as the Prophet Mohammed and who must himself be trained by a Sufi master. The successor is usually determined by designation . In the history of the order there have also been succession disputes, which in some cases led to a split and the emergence of side branches. The Qutb is subordinate to a number of sheikhs , all of whom are currently men. The Murid called followers of the Order are full obedience to the Qutb and Sheikh ( Murād committed). In addition, there are mutual obligations and rights that must be fulfilled by both sides.

The focus of the social and spiritual life of the order is the Chanqāh, which is also called the “Sufi house” in German. This is usually a simple building or apartment where the members of the order meet regularly. The concept of such a place where people can meet and learn together and pursue Sufi practices is present in many Sufi orders. Metaphorical Chanqāhs are also ascribed to the prophets , such as the fountain for the prophet Yūsuf and the Kaaba for the prophet Mohammed.

There is also a clear hierarchy in the Chanqāhs: at the top is the sheikh, subordinate to him is the guide ( pīr ad-dalīl ) and that of the tea master. There is also a caretaker and, if necessary, helpers and helping dervishes ( ahl al-ḫidma ). Some dervishes live in the Chanqāhs and pay rent. In addition, the activities of the Order are mainly financed through donations.

Meetings usually take place every Thursday and Sunday evening in which various practices such as prayer, dhikr, meditation and samāʿ are carried out together. In addition, the followers also listen to music or recordings of speeches of the Qutb together.

initiation

The psychological and physical initiation of a candidate into the Order involves numerous rites and practices. There are differences between the various branches in the exact implementation, and for some the ceremony hardly plays a role anymore. Nonetheless, initiation is an important process that reflects the basic ideas of the order and through which aspirants become official members of the order. In principle, the candidate must have a job and must not have any mental disorders or drug / alcohol addiction . The ritual for women and men is identical with small differences.

In Iran, most of the applicants have a Shiite background and are given a passport at initiation with the date of their initiation into the order and the prayers and dhikr formulas ( aḏkār ) they must recite. These passports once served as a distinguishing feature, as the Chanqāhs in Iran were often also accommodation for travelers and dervishes of other orders. The order members in the west, on the other hand, have no passports, as the Niʿmatullāhī-Chanqāhs generally only contain dervishes from their own order. The prayers and dhikr formulas are recorded in a manual by Javad Nurbakhsh. Until 1991, when sheikhs were installed in the Chanqāhs in the west, new followers were initiated by Nurbakhsh personally or by his chief sheikh Masha'Allah Niktab '.

Before the actual ritual, the aspirant must take hold of the nīya and perform five symbolic ghusl washings:

  1. Washing of the Tauba : The aspirant shows remorse for all his previous misdeeds.
  2. Washing of devotion to Islam: the non-Muslim aspirant accepts Islam and the Muslim aspirant again vows to submit to the rules of Islam.
  3. Washing of spiritual poverty ( faqr ): The outer washing stands for an inner cleansing in preparation for the path of spiritual poverty.
  4. Washing of the ziyāra : the aspirant cleans himself externally and internally before he comes before the master.
  5. Washing of Fulfillment ( qaḍāʾ al-ḥāǧāt ): The aspirant prays to attain the status of perfection and go to Paradise .

After the aspirant has achieved a status of purity in this way, he gives the master five gifts, which are also symbolic and represent his spiritual poverty:

  1. White cloth: The white cloth represents the shroud and stands for the complete devotion of the aspirant to God and his Master.
  2. Nutmeg : The nutmeg represents the head of the aspirant who promises not to divulge the spiritual secrets that are given to him.
  3. Ring: The ring symbolizes the connection of the aspirant's heart with God. By handing over the ring, the aspirant promises to give himself only to God and to strive for nothing else.
  4. Coin: The coin represents worldly wealth. The aspirant banishes this from the heart and accepts spiritual poverty. However, that does not mean that the Order is negative about wealth. If a Sufi is rich he should be generous and if he is poor he should be patient.
  5. Sweets: The sweets are a sign of joy for the “second birth” of the aspirant by entering into spiritual poverty.

The candidate then undertakes to adhere to the following five basic rules:

  1. Observance of the Sharia and the testimony that ʿAlī is the friend of God ( walī Allaah ).
  2. Kindness to all God's creatures.
  3. The keeping of the secrets entrusted to the Sufi on the way.
  4. Obeying Master without questioning him.
  5. Preparation of a special meal as an offering, which is then distributed to the dervishes.

Finally, the aspirant expresses his devotion to the Master, who once again reminds him of the basic teachings of the Order and prays for the forgiveness of his sins . With the completion of the ceremony, the candidate is now officially introduced into the Order and the Chanqāh.

literature

  • Jean Aubin: Matériaux Pour la Biographie de Shah Ni'matullah Wali Kermani: Maǧmū'a dar tarǧuma-i aḥwāl-i šāh-i Ni'mat-Allāh Walī Kirmānī. Inst. Franco-Iranien ua, Tehran, 1956.
  • Hamid Algar and J. Burton-Page: Niʿmat-Allāhiyya. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. VIII, pp. 44b-48a.
  • Terry Graham: The Ni'matullāhī Order Under Safavid Suppression and Indian Exile . In: The Heritage of Sufism. Late classical Persianate Sufism: (1501-1750); the Safavid & Mughal period. Oneworld, Oxford, 1999. pp. 165-200.
  • Terry Graham: Shah Ni'metullah Wali: Founder of the Ni'metullahi Sufi Order . In: Leonard Lewisohn (Ed.) The Legacy of Medieval Persian Sufism. Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Publ., London-New York, 1992. pp. 173-190.
  • Richard Gramlich : The Shiite Dervish Orders of Persia. 1. The affiliations. Steiner, Wiesbaden, 1965. pp. 27-69.
  • Richard Gramlich: The Shiite Dervish Orders of Persia. 3. Customs and rites. Steiner, Wiesbaden, 1981. pp. 15-17, 75-78.
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  • Javad Nurbakhsh : In the Paradise of the Sufis. Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Publ., New-York, 1979.
  • Javad Nurbakhsh : In the Tavern of Ruin. Seven Essays on Sufism. Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Publ., New-York, 1978.
  • Javad Nurbakhsh : Masters of the Path: A History of the Masters of the Nimatullahi Sufi Order. Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Publications, New York and London, 1980.
  • Javad Nurbakhsh : “The Nimatullāhī” in Seyyed Hossein Nasr (Ed.) Islamic Spirituality: Manifestations, World Spirituality Series. SCM Press, London, 1991.
  • Nasrollah Pourjavady and Peter Lamborn Wilson: Kings of Love - The History and Poetry of the Ni'matullahi Sufi Order. Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, Tehran, 1978.
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  • Nasrollah Pourjavady and Peter Lamborn Wilson: “Ismāʿīlīs and Ni'matullāhīs” in Studia Islamica. XLI, 1975.
  • Sholeh A. Quinn: "Rewriting Niʿmatuʾllāhī History in Safavid Chronicles" in Leonard Lewisohn (Ed.) The Heritage of Sufism. Late classical Persianate Sufism: (1501-1750); the Safavid & Mughal period. Oneworld, Oxford, 1999. pp. 201-222.
  • Oliver Scharbrodt: "The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam: The Conflation of Shi'i and Sufi Vilāyat in the Niʿmatullāhī Order" in Denis Hermann (Ed.): Shi'i trends and dynamics in modern times: (XVIIIth - XXth centuries) = Courants et dynamiques chiites à l'époque moderne. Ergon-Verl., Würzburg, 2010.
  • Abdus Subhan: K̲h̲alīl Allāh But-S̲h̲ikan. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. IV, pp. 961b-962a.
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Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Hamid Algar, J. Burton-Page: Niʿmat-Allāhiyya In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. VIII, pp. 44b-48a.
  2. ↑ Graham: Shah Wali Ni'metullah. 1992, p. 173.
  3. ^ Trimingham : The Sufi Orders in Islam. 1971, p. 101.
  4. ↑ Graham: Shah Wali Ni'metullah. 1992, p. 173.
  5. ↑ Nurbaksh : Masters of the Path. 1980, p. 41.
  6. ↑ Graham: Shah Wali Ni'metullah. 1992, pp. 176-178.
  7. ^ Trimingham : The Sufi Orders in Islam. 1971, p. 101.
  8. ↑ Hamid Algar, J. Burton-Page: Niʿmat-Allāhiyya In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. VIII, pp. 44b-48a.
  9. ↑ Graham: Shah Wali Ni'metullah. 1992, pp. 178-183.
  10. ↑ Graham: Shah Wali Ni'metullah. 1992, pp. 183-184.
  11. ↑ Nurbaksh : Masters of the Path. 1980, p. 46.
  12. ↑ Nurbaksh : Masters of the Path. 1980, p. 50f.
  13. ↑ Nurbaksh : Masters of the Path. 1980, pp. 48-50.
  14. ↑ Nurbaksh : Masters of the Path. 1980, p. 50.
  15. ↑ Mahmut Erol Kılıç: Art. “Niʿmetullāh-I Velī” in: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. ( Online )
  16. ↑ Mahmut Erol Kılıç: Art. “Niʿmetullāh-I Velī” in: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. ( Online )
  17. ↑ Nurbaksh : Masters of the Path. 1980, p. 52.
  18. ↑ Nurbaksh : Masters of the Path. 1980, p. 53f.
  19. ↑ See Naim: “'Prophecies' in South Asian Muslim Political Discourse: The Poems of Shah Ni'matullah Wali.” 2011, pp. 49–58.
  20. ↑ Hamid Algar, J. Burton-Page: Niʿmat-Allāhiyya . In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. VIII, pp. 44b-48a.
  21. ↑ Nurbaksh : Masters of the Path. 1980, p. 46.
  22. ^ Graham: The Ni'matullāhī Order Under Safavid Suppression and Indian Exile. 1999, p. 170.
  23. ↑ Abdus Subhan: K̲h̲alīl Allāh But-S̲h̲ikan . In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. IV, pp. 961b-962a.
  24. ^ Graham: The Ni'matullāhī Order Under Safavid Suppression and Indian Exile. 1999, pp. 174-176.
  25. ^ Graham: The Ni'matullāhī Order Under Safavid Suppression and Indian Exile. 1999, p. 173.
  26. ^ Graham: The Ni'matullāhī Order Under Safavid Suppression and Indian Exile. 1999, p. 178f.
  27. ^ Graham: The Ni'matullāhī Order Under Safavid Suppression and Indian Exile. 1999, p. 165.
  28. ^ Graham: The Ni'matullāhī Order Under Safavid Suppression and Indian Exile. 1999, p. 167.
  29. ↑ Hamid Algar, J. Burton-Page: Niʿmat-Allāhiyya In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. VIII, pp. 44b-48a.
  30. ↑ Hamid Algar, J. Burton-Page: Niʿmat-Allāhiyya In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. VIII, pp. 44b-48a.
  31. ↑ Hamid Algar, J. Burton-Page: Niʿmat-Allāhiyya In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. VIII, p. 46a.
  32. ↑ Scharbrodt: "The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam." 2010, pp. 37-38.
  33. ↑ Scharbrodt: "The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam." 2010, p. 38.
  34. ↑ Scharbrodt: The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam. 2010, p. 38.
  35. ↑ Scharbrodt: The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam. 2010, p. 39.
  36. ↑ Scharbrodt: The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam. 2010, p. 39.
  37. ↑ Scharbrodt: The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam. 2010, p. 35.
  38. ↑ Pourjavady / Wilson: Kings of Love. 1978, pp. 123-128.
  39. ↑ Scharbrodt: The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam. 2010, p. 40.
  40. ↑ Scharbrodt: The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam. 2010, p. 40.
  41. ↑ Scharbrodt: The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam. 2010, p. 40.
  42. ↑ Hamid Algar, J. Burton-Page: Niʿmat-Allāhiyya In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. VIII, pp. 44b-48a.
  43. ↑ Scharbrodt: The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam. 2010, p. 48.
  44. ↑ Hamid Algar, J. Burton-Page: Niʿmat-Allāhiyya In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. VIII, pp. 44b-48a.
  45. ↑ Momen: An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. 1985, p. 214
  46. ↑ Pourjavady / Wilson: Kings of Love. 1978, p. 136.
  47. ↑ Pourjavady / Wilson: Kings of Love. 1978, pp. 140f.
  48. ↑ Pourjavady / Wilson: Kings of Love. 1978, pp. 140-144.
  49. ↑ Pourjavady / Wilson: Kings of Love. 1978, p. 144.
  50. ↑ Pourjavady / Wilson: Kings of Love. 1978, pp. 147-151.
  51. ^ Lewisohn: An introduction to the history of modern Persian Sufism . 1998, p. 449.
  52. ↑ Pourjavady / Wilson: Kings of Love. 1978, p. 172.
  53. ↑ Biography of Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh Online
  54. ^ Lewisohn: An introduction to the history of modern Persian Sufism . 1998, pp. 459-461.
  55. ^ Biography of Javad Nurbakhsh http://www.nimatullahi-sufihaus.org/biografie-j-nurbakhsh/
  56. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 51.
  57. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 51.
  58. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 51.
  59. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 54f.
  60. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 54.
  61. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 53.
  62. ^ Lewisohn: "Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora." 2006, pp. 55, 57-61.
  63. ↑ https://www.nimatullahi.org/
  64. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, pp. 55-57.
  65. ↑ https://www.sufijournal.org/
  66. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 56.
  67. ↑ Scharbrodt: The quṭb as Special Representative of the Hidden Imam: The Conflation of Shi'i and Sufi Vilāyat in the Niʿmatullāhī Order. 2010, p. 41.
  68. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979, pp. 11-13.
  69. ^ Gramlich: The Shiite dervish orders of Persia. 2. Faith and Doctrine. 1976, p. 439f.
  70. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979, pp. 31-48.
  71. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979, pp. 53-66.
  72. ↑ Wehr: Arabic dictionary for the written language of the present. 1985, p. 490.
  73. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979, pp. 71-81.
  74. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979, pp. 91-99.
  75. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979, pp. 103-111.
  76. ↑ Netton: Ṣūfī ritual: The Parallel Universe. 2000, pp. 25-27.
  77. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 52.
  78. ↑ Netton: Ṣūfī ritual: The Parallel Universe. 2000, p. 26.
  79. ↑ Netton: Ṣūfī ritual: The Parallel Universe. 2000, p. 27f.
  80. ↑ Netton: Ṣūfī ritual: The Parallel Universe. 2000, p. 28.
  81. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 55.
  82. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 52.
  83. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 52.
  84. ^ Gramlich: The Shiite dervish orders of Persia. 3. Customs and rites. 1981, p. 75.
  85. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 53.
  86. ↑ Netton: Ṣūfī ritual: The Parallel Universe. 2000, pp. 31-32.
  87. ^ Lewisohn: "Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora." 2006, pp. 52-53.
  88. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979.
  89. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 53.
  90. ^ Lewisohn: Persian Sufism in the Contemporary West: Reflections on the Nimatullahi diaspora. 2006, p. 53.
  91. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979, pp. 119-121.
  92. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979, pp. 121-123.
  93. ^ Nurbakhsh: In the Paradise of the Sufis. 1979, pp. 123-125.
  94. ^ Gramlich: The Shiite dervish orders of Persia. 3. Customs and rites. 1981, pp. 76-78.