Psychological differences between men and women

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Psychological differences between the sexes arise from complex relationships between biology , development and cultural imprinting .

Differences have been demonstrated in various areas such as mental health , cognitive skills , personality, and the potential for aggression . It is not clear whether the differences are biological or learned. Modern research tries to isolate the different influencing factors and to quantify their effects. In particular, it tries to find out what causes the differences and how that happens. The importance of the plant-environment interaction is discussed.

A large number of different factors influence the development of gender differences. These include the genes, epigenetic parameters ; Differences in the structure of the brain and its functions; Differences in the expression of hormones; or differences in psychological personality traits such as emotionality, motivation, cognitive ability and sexuality. It is believed that differences in the way girls and boys are brought up can increase or decrease the differences in behavior.

definition

The psychological differences between men and women are seen in the psyche with regard to affects , behavior with regard to social norms , emotionality , motivation , empathy and cognitive abilities.

history

The belief that gender differences exist has long existed. In his 1859 book On the Origin of Species , Charles Darwin postulates that psychological traits, just like physical traits, arise through the process of natural selection:

“In the distant future, I see research opportunities in much more important fields. Psychology will have a new foundation. And this will be that every mental strength is passed on through heredity. "

- Charles Darwin : The Origin of Species, 1859, p. 449

In his two later books, The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection (1871) and The Expression of Emotional Movements in Man and Animals (1872), he examines the gender-specific psychological differences more closely. The English version of the first book contains 70 pages on natural selection in human evolution, in which psychological features are also addressed.

Psychological characteristics

Gender Identity Development

Gender identity encompasses the gender-related aspects of human identity . Their development is subject to a complex process in which biopsychosocial factors interact with psychogenetic foundations and influences through socialization . Psychoanalytic theory has contributed to the question of how gender identity is formed in individual development. According to Jessica Benjamin , sexual development runs from autoerotism to narcissism to genital love. She described in detail different phases in the development of gender identity .

People who have had sex reassignment surgery shortly after giving birth are given the opportunity to study what happens when a person is raised as the opposite sex . An example of this is David Reimer . Biologically, Reimer was a boy, but was operated on to a girl shortly after birth. This was done on the advice of a doctor, since his genitals had already been destroyed by a failed operation. The case was seen as a very good example of testing whether gender identity is socially learned. Despite the sex reassignment surgery and hormone therapy, Reimer did not identify as a woman. According to his own statement and that of his parents, the "experiment" resulted in the fact that he suffered from severe psychological problems throughout his life. Reimer committed suicide at the age of 38.

Individuals who adopt a gender identity that does not match their biological identity are known as transgender . Why it comes about that these people adopt a contrary gender identity has not been conclusively clarified. Some studies of transgender people who become women from men have found a correlation with levels of the hormone androgen during the development of the fetus.

Play behavior in childhood

There are numerous studies on gender-specific differences in play behavior among children, some with inconsistent results. Gender-specific toy preferences describe that boys traditionally prefer toys that are typical for boys and that girls traditionally prefer toys that are typical for girls. Cars or construction toys are considered to be typical toys for boys, and dolls or kitchen toys are considered to be typical toys for girls. Gender-neutral toys, on the other hand, include books or board games. Various studies over the past few decades have examined the type and possible causes of gender-specific toy preferences. A study by Liss (1981) shows that boys traditionally prefer male and neutral toys, while girls traditionally prefer female toys. In addition, differences in the use of the toy were found in the study. Girls pay more attention to details, show less aggressive behavior and move less than boys when playing. Further studies confirm that girls and boys prefer sex-typical toys over sex-untypical ones (Downs, 1983; Berenbaum & Hines, 1992). The gender-typical characteristics are increasingly found in boys, girls also play a lot with neutral toys.

Research into the causes of gender-specific toy preferences can show that these are both genetically determined and brought about by socialization effects. Genetic influences were u. a. suggested by studies examining the behavior of children affected by congenital adrenogenital hyperplasia ( adrenogenital syndrome, AGS ). For example, girls with AGS are “masculinized” before and after birth, while boys suffering from AGS experience premature development of the sexual organs. This is attributed to the influence of male sex hormones ( androgens ), which are increasingly produced in individuals with AGS. As early as the 1990s, researchers found that girls with AGS preferred to occupy themselves with traditionally male toys, while boys affected by AGS did not differ from boys of the same age in terms of their toy preferences. The results suggest that the special intrauterine and early childhood hormonal influences have virilizing effects on the play behavior of girls. A connection between the severity of early childhood virilization and the strength of toy preferences in boys was not found.

However, in addition to the system, the environment also plays a major role in terms of the toys that children prefer. Studies show that parents and their children often act according to traditional gender roles (eg, Fagot, 1978; Wood et al, 2002). In this way, role-compliant gaming behavior is rewarded, while deviating is often punished or ignored. A study has also shown that even in studies on investment influences, the socialization effects cannot be fully controlled, since parents support girls with AGS less in typical female play behavior compared to parents of healthy girls (Wong et al, 2013). The AGS status clears up approx. 15-30% of the gaming behavior variance, parental support furthermore a further 5-20% (Wong et al, 2013). In conclusion, both prenatal androgens and (parental) socialization contribute to gender-specific toy preferences in children.

In order to ignore the influences of socialization and upbringing in the research of toy preferences in boys and girls, Alexander and Hines (2002) examined the toy behavior of non-human primates . Toys that are preferred by either boys, girls or both sexes were placed in a random order one after the other for five minutes in a cage of small groups of green monkeys ( Cercopithecusaethiops sabaeus ). It was found that these preferences, already found in human children, were also present in the green monkeys and that the type of interaction was similar. Next were researchers in Uganda gender-typical toys behavior in apes watch as example. The stick-carrying in chimps .

The study provides support for the hypothesis that gender differences in toy preferences can occur regardless of the social and cognitive mechanisms that many see as the primary influences on toy preferences in humans.

Sexual behavior

There are several psychological theories about differences in sexual behavior between the sexes. These studies suggested that men were more likely to have casual sex and were more promiscuous .

The sociological approach in evolutionary biology states that sexual behavior is shaped by reproductive success. According to social biologists, women are much more selective when choosing a partner. This is due to the fact that their parental investment is larger. A woman has less chance of conceiving children over her lifetime than a man because of the limited number of eggs in her ovaries compared to sperm. In addition, pregnancy and breastfeeding require a woman to invest more time in her children. However, with today's advances in contraception, sexual behavior has changed dramatically, as sexuality and reproduction are no longer linked to the same extent, which is why these evolutionary behaviors are more difficult to detect in modern societies today.

Neoanalytic theories suggest that both male and female children develop a stronger bond with their mothers / wives, since in almost all cultures child-rearing is mainly done by women. According to the theory of psychoanalyst Nancy Chodorow, girls maintain this bond and form their identity through various relationships they enter into. Boys, however, reject the maternal bond in order to develop a masculine identity. According to this theory, women tend to have more sex in committed relationships in order to gain economic security in male-dominated societies.

The theory of sexual strategies by David Buss and David P. Schmitt is a theory from evolutionary psychology and deals with short-term and long-term reproductive strategies. These strategies differ depending on the objectives and the given environmental conditions.

According to social learning theory, sexual behavior is influenced by the social environment. According to this theory, attitudes to sexuality and sexual behavior are learned through observation of role models such as parents or stars. Positive or negative reinforcement either for behaviors that are typical for one's own gender or for behaving atypically also play a role. According to this theory, differences in sexual behavior between the sexes can change over time with social norms changing as well. In addition, according to this theory, large differences in sexual behavior arise from the fact that women experience far more negative reactions to promiscuous behavior from society than men (some of which are even rewarded for this).

This double standard can also be found in the theory of social roles. This suggests that attitudes towards sexuality and sexual behavior are determined by the role models that men and women should fulfill in society. In addition, script theory suggests that behavior has a symbolic meaning. This is how social conventions influence specific behavior. Male sexuality is more associated with individual lust and machostereotypes (i.e. increased casual sex), while female sexuality is more associated with the quality and depth of the relationship involved.

intelligence

With the introduction of the concept of the General Factor of Intelligence, or the g-factor, which provides a way to measure intelligence empirically, it was possible to make comparisons between the sexes, but the results were inconsistent. Some studies did not show any gender differences or superiority. One study found higher scores for women later in life, while another found that differences in cognitive test scores are minimized when socio-economic factors are taken into account. The differences between men and women in the results of IQ tests are mostly viewed as small. However, the variance of the results appears to be greater for men than for women, so that men are more likely to be found than women at both ends of the spectrum of IQ values.

According to the Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns report of the Association of American Psychologists, "most standardized intelligence tests are designed not to produce large differences in results for men and women." In 1998, the American psychologist Arthur Jensen conducted studies on gender differences in the area of ​​intelligence. He relied primarily on tests for the g-factor. However, these tests were not standardized to correct for gender differences. He came to the conclusion that "there is no difference on average in the general intelligence of women and men. Men are better in some areas and women are better in others." Jensen's finding that there was no difference in general intelligence was also confirmed by other researchers who looked at 42 other tests of mental performance and found no gender differences on average.

Although there were no differences in many tests, there were differences in some. For example, women increasingly showed better language skills, while men did better in visual-spatial tasks. One area where women did better overall was language proficiency. There they were better at vocabulary, reading comprehension, language production and writing. Men did better in the areas of spatial imagination, spatial perception and mental rotation. Researchers then suggested that models such as fluid and crystalline intelligence should be broken down into verbal, perceptual, and visual-spatial areas of the g-factor. In this way, one could determine the differences between men and women more clearly through different results in the individual sub-areas.

In other areas traditionally considered male dominated, such as mathematics, it is more difficult to identify clear gender differences. Although women, on average, perform worse on tasks related to visuospatial imagination, they do better on tasks that involve processing letters, numbers, or quick repetition. They also do better when it comes to memory in terms of object location, verbal memory, and verbal learning.

memory

Research in the area of ​​gender differences in memory is inconsistent. Some studies show no difference, while other studies show benefits for men or women. Most studies could not find a significant difference in short-term memory. No differences were found in the deterioration of memory or visual memory with age. An advantage was found for women in retrieving auditory and olfactory stimuli, experiences, faces, names and the location of objects in space. A study that examined differences in the results of the California Verbal Learning Test found that men did better on the digit span test backwards and had faster reaction times. Women, on the other hand, were better in the short-term memory and symbol-digit modalities test . Improved verbal memory was also repeatedly found in women.

Another study looked at which regions of the brain are activated when tasks related to working memory have to be solved. Four different tasks with increasing difficulty were given to nine men and eight women to solve. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to measure brain activity. The lateral prefrontal cortex , the parietal cortex and the caudate nucleus were activated in the brains of all participants regardless of gender. The more difficult the task, the more areas of the brain were activated. The left hemisphere was increasingly activated in female subjects, while in men both hemispheres were activated equally.

aggression

Although research shows that men are more likely than women to show aggression , it is not clear whether this is a result of social factors such as gender behavioral expectations. The aggression itself is strongly related to the cultural definitions of what is seen as "masculine" and "feminine". In some situations, women show as much or more aggression than men. The aggression is less often shown in physical aggression. For example, women are more likely to show direct aggression in private, while they are more likely to show indirect aggression in public. Men are more likely to be victims of violent threats and provocations than women. Studies by Bettencourt and Miller showed that the gender-specific differences are greatly reduced when studies on aggression are checked to determine whether previous provocations were included. They come to the conclusion that prejudice plays a large role in the perception of the differences between men and women in the area of ​​aggression. Psychologist Anne Campbell is of the opinion that women are more likely to show indirect aggression. She also says that evolutionary differences in aggressive behavior are amplified by cultural ideas. Women have to justify themselves for aggression rather than seeing their aggression as normal and justified.

According to the International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences , gender differences in aggression are one of the oldest and most robust findings in psychological research. Meta-analyzes of the encyclopedia showed that men were more likely to be physically and verbally aggressive, while women were more likely to express their aggressions indirectly through gossip, social exclusion and character assassination. Another finding was that men are more likely to be unprovokedly aggressive than women. This confirms another meta-analysis from 2007 with 148 studies in the Journal of Child Development , which shows that boys show more aggressive behavior in childhood and adolescence. This is further underpinned by the Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology , which also examined past studies and came to the conclusion that men are more often verbally and physically aggressive. The differences between men and women in the area of ​​physical violence were greater than in the area of ​​verbal violence. A meta-analysis of 122 studies published in the Journal of Aggressive Behavior showed that men engage in cyberbullying more often than women. Differences in age were also shown. For example, women as young teanagers were perpetrators of cyberbullying while men were more likely to be perpetrators of cyberbullying at the end of their teanager time.

The relationship between the hormone testosterone and aggression has not been definitively established. But it has been shown to be causal. Some studies have shown that testosterone levels vary based on environmental and social influences. The exact connection is difficult to investigate, since the exact testosterone level in the brain can only be determined by lumbar puncture, which is only carried out for special studies. Many studies therefore use less reliable measuring methods such as the testosterone level in the blood.

It has been statistically proven that men are more likely to commit crimes than women, especially in the area of ​​acts of violence. Many studies have shown a correlation between criminal behavior and high testosterone levels. However, the relationship is not strong when each gender is considered individually. However, no connection between hormone levels in the area of ​​juvenile delinquency can be established.

In species where there is more physical fighting between males, especially in mating fights, males are often stronger and larger than females. In humans, too, it is noticeable that men and women differ moderately physically in terms of size and body mass. However, the difference in strength is further increased by the fact that women have more fat reserves than muscle mass compared to men. Men have significantly more muscle mass, especially in the upper body area. The male skeleton and bone structure is more robust than the female. Reasons for this evolutionary development are, for example, adaptations for fights with other men or physical adaptations in order to be able to hunt better.

There are also evolutionary theories about aggressive behavior in men in specific areas. These include socio-biological theories about rape and theories about high rates of abuse of stepchildren ( Cinderella effect). Another evolutionary theory that explains gender differences in aggression is the "Male Warrior Hypothesis", which postulates that men have psychologically evolved to show aggression in order to gain partners, resources, land and status.

Character traits

Cross-cultural studies have shown that there are gender-specific differences in the area of ​​emotionality and social behavior. For example, in studies of the Big Five character traits from psychology. There it is consistently stated that women have stronger results in the areas of neuroticism , tolerance and warmth (as a partial aspect of extraversion ). Furthermore, women are more open to feelings. Men have more assertiveness (i.e. lower values ​​in the area of ​​tolerance and as part of the extraversion). Men are often more open to new ideas and developments, which is also confirmed by the NEO-PI-R personality test. Personality differences between men and women are greatest in countries with a high standard of living and extensive equality. Differences between developed and less developed countries in the area of ​​gender-specific differences between men and women are more likely due to the different standards of living and different ways of life of men. Men in affluent countries are less neurotic, extroverted, conscientious and more agreeable compared to men in less developed regions. However, regardless of the wealth of their nations, women are similar in terms of their personality traits. Scientists believe that the scarcity of resources in poorer regions slows or prevents the development of differences in the personalities of women and men. In richer regions, however, these can develop freely. Some authors also described that men evolved out of evolutionary pressures to be more risk-taking and socially dominant. Meanwhile, women evolved to be more careful and caring. It is also speculated that hunter-gatherer communities had a higher degree of equality than agriculturally oriented societies. In modern societies, in which complete equality is ensured, these gender-specific differences between the sexes then come to the fore fully and undamped without the inequalities. However, this hypothesis has not yet been scientifically supported, as modern societies are difficult to compare with communities of hunters and gatherers.

Normative Differences in Personality in the Cattel Domains. (Based on data from M. Del Giudice, T. Booth, & P. ​​Irwing, 2012)

A personality trait in which there are clear gender-specific differences is Machiavellianism . People who show a high score here are emotionally hypothermic, which allows them to be unaffected by the fate of others. Thus, they can easily act more selfishly instead of acting out of affect , empathy, or moral reasons. In large samples of American college students, men showed higher levels of Machiavellianism than women. Men were very overrepresented in the group of people who showed particularly high scores. However, women were strongly represented in the group that showed particularly low scores.

A meta-analysis from 2014 by the scientists Rebecca Friesdorf and Paul Conway showed that men had significantly higher levels of narcissism than women, which is also in line with previous research results. This meta-analysis looked at 355 studies on narcissism with participants from Germany, China, the Netherlands, Italy, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Singapore, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Australia and Belgium. Latent factors from 124 additional studies were also included. Regarding the latent factors, the authors argued that narcissism should not be viewed alone, but that the differences between men and women in this area are also shown by a higher level of entitlement and authority in men.

Meta-analyzes also showed that men are on average more assertive and also have more self-esteem. Women, on the other hand, are more sociable, more trusting, more fearful and more docile. It was also found that women are more sensitive to punishment than men, who are more thrill-seeking and like to take risks. Deficits in affect control were also more likely to appear in men.

A meta-analysis of scientific studies showed that men prefer to work with objects, while women prefer to work with people. When attempts were made to identify differences in interests using the RIASEC type of Holland Codes (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Entrepreneurial, Conventional), men showed more realistic and investigative interests, while women showed more artistic, social and conventional interests. It has also been shown that men are more likely to be interested in engineering, science, and math.

empathy

The current tenor in science is that women have more empathy than men. Women tend to do better on tests that involve interpreting emotions, like reading facial expressions and empathy.

Some studies say this is related to the person's gender identity, as well as society's expectations about the gender. The culture also influences gender-specific differences in relation to the expression of emotions. Influences here could be different social roles for the sexes and differences in status and power. However, some studies found no gender differences in the area of ​​empathy, arguing that the alleged differences were due to motivational factors. More specifically, it is believed that the differences disappear if the participants do not realize that the test is about measuring empathy. The differences arise from the fact that men and women want to be seen to different degrees as empathic or not. Although they actually have the same empathy, the test results are different because of how they want to present themselves.

The journal Neuropsychologia published that women are better at recognizing facial expressions and also at processing emotions in general. Men were only better than women in a few ways when it came to spotting aggression, anger, and threatening behavior. A 2006 meta-analysis by Rena A. Kirkland in the North American Journal of Psychology showed that gender differences with higher scores for women on the Reading of the Mind test. This is used to measure the ability in cognitive empathy. The meta-analysis looked at 259 studies from 10 different countries. Another meta-analysis from the journal Cognition and Emotion 2014 showed that women, on average, have advantages in recognizing non-verbally communicated emotions.

An analysis published in the journal Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews showed that differences in empathy between men and women exist from birth and remain constant over the entire lifespan. It was found that girls have more empathy than boys and also that children with higher empathy retain this ability over their entire lifetime. Further analysis showed that women showed a higher event-related potential on the electroencephalogram when they saw human suffering. Another study, for example with N400 amplitudes, found that higher N400 amplitudes were measured in women as a reaction to social situations that correlated positively with their self-assessed empathy. Structural fMRI studies have shown that women have a larger volume of gray cells in the lower frontal lobe turns and in the inferior partietal cortex, which are areas that correlate with mirror neurons .

Stronger connections between emotional and cognitive empathy were also found in women. The scientists found that the stability of the gender-specific differences in development cannot be explained by environmental influences and are more likely to be caused by evolution and heredity.

One explanation for this evolutionary development is that it was important for women to maintain and understand relationships. So it was important for women to be able to read emotions well. These skills were also very important for raising children and building social networks. According to the Primary Caretaker Hypothesis , men did not have the same evolutionary pressure as women to perfect their skills in dealing with children. Therefore it could be that differences in the ability to recognize emotions and show empathy have developed in this way.

Emotions

In tests that measure affect intensity, it was found that women experience a higher intensity of positive and negative affects than men. Women also reported feeling affect, joy, and love more intensely and more often . To the same extent, however, also more feelings of shame , sadness , anger, fear and stress . The feeling of pride was stronger and more common in men than in women. In scary situations, such as when a stranger walks past the house while home alone, women reported being more scared. Women also reported feeling more anxious in situations where hostile and aggressive behavior is shown by men. In angry situations, women reported having more intense feelings of anger than men. Women also reported feeling more intense anger in frightening situations, especially when male protagonists are involved.

Emotional contagion is a phenomenon that describes how one feels the same emotions from people who are in close proximity. Women seem to be more likely to feel contagious than men.

Women are said to be more emotional than men, while the latter are often described as angrier. When people have less information about emotional states, they are more likely to use these gender stereotypes. The results of a study by Robinson also showed that gender stereotypes have a greater influence when it comes to describing the emotions of others in hypothetical situations.

Differences in the socialization of women and men could cause the differences in the processing of emotions and lead to different neural patterns in the brain developing differently. An article by the American Association of Psychologists postulated that "boys are more likely to be made to suppress their emotions and express their anger at violence than to find a more constructive outlet." A Harvard child development researcher also said boys are encouraged to suppress their emotions, especially empathy, compassion and other key components of social behavior. If one follows these opinions, one comes to the conclusion that the differences in the processing and expression of emotions are theoretically more socially constructed than they are biologically induced.

The situational context also has a major impact on emotional behavior. Context-based norms, such as rules about what to feel or how emotions should be expressed, "prescribe emotional experiences and expression in specific situations, such as weddings or funerals." Gender differences are so greater when there are no strong situational connotations about which emotions to feel and how to express them.

Psychology professor Ann Kring says, however, that one has to distinguish between feeling emotions and expressing them. "It is incorrect to say that women are more emotional than men. You could say that women are more likely to show their feelings than men." In two studies by Kring it was shown that women show their feelings more strongly than men through facial features, with both negative and positive emotions. The end result of the research was that women and men feel the same intensity of emotions, but women express them more strongly.

Women have anatomically larger tear glands than men and also higher amounts of the hormone prolactin, which is present in the tear glands. While boys and girls aged 12 cry roughly equally, women aged 18 cry four times more often than their male peers.

Much higher activity in the left amygdala can be recorded in women when trying to describe or remember emotionally disturbing images. Men and women use different neural pathways to encode stimuli in memory. While one study showed that all participants remembered emotional images better than emotionally neutral images, women, on average, were better at remembering emotional images. The study also showed that the right half of the amygdala was more activated in men, while the left half was in women. On average, women are more likely to use the left brain when shown emotional images, while men are more likely to use the right brain. Women also show more consistently similar patterns of activation of different brain regions in encoding emotionally disturbing images.

A 2003 poll by the Pew Research Center found that women, on average, were slightly happier with their lives than men. Compared to the survey five years earlier, women reported that they had made greater strides in their lives, while men were more optimistic about the future. Women were more likely to worry about family, while men were more likely to worry about problems outside of them. Men were happier than women about family life and more optimistic about their children's future.

Research shows that women are also more likely to use emoticons in text messages than men.

Ethics and morals

Meta-analyzes of gender differences in morality showed that women are more inclined towards care ethics , while men are more inclined towards morality based on law and order. This is explained by the fact that men are more prone to logical thinking, while women are more prone to deontological ways of thinking, probably because women feel more affect and are more likely to want to refrain from actions that lead to injury. A meta-analysis published in the journal Ethics and Behavior in 2013 after reviewing 19 primary studies found that women are morally more sensitive than men.

Mental health

Behavioral disorders in childhood, as well as anti-social personality and substance abuse , are more common in men. However, many mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and eating disorders are more common in women. One explanation for this is that men are more likely to externalize stress while women internalize it. Differences between the sexes are also different depending on the culture. Women are more likely to suffer from depression. A 1987 study showed little empirical evidence that it is biological differences that cause higher rates of depression in women. Rather, it was believed that the main reason is that women are more prone to brooding, while men are distracted from stress by doing various activities. This difference in behavior could be caused by other ways of raising boys and girls.

Overall, men and women have the same rates of mental illness. However, they differ in the nature of the disease. Women are more likely to suffer from anxiety disorders and depression (internalized diseases), while men are more likely to suffer from drug abuse and antisocial disorders (externalized diseases). It is believed that the differences in responsibilities and balance of power in everyday life is a critical factor in the development of these differences. For example, women earn less money on average, they have less power and autonomy and they also feel more affected or more responsible for problems affecting people in their social environment. With these three differences, women are likely to be more likely to experience depression and anxiety disorders. It is believed that social strategies that encourage people to value themselves more and to exercise more self-control would improve the mental health of men and women.

One study interviewed 18,572 participants over the age of 18 about 15 phobic symptoms. These symptoms can be used to diagnose agoraphobia , social phobia, and simple phobia. Women had significantly higher prevalence rates of agoraphobia and simple phobia. No differences could be found in the area of ​​social phobia. The most common phobias for women and men were fear of spiders , other insects, snakes, and great heights . The greatest differences were found in the area of ​​agoraphobia, especially with the symptoms "going out of the house alone" or "being alone". In the area of ​​other phobias, women also stated somewhat more often that they were afraid of animals or storms. No differences were found in the age of first onset, nor in the intensity of the phobia, symptoms, seeing a doctor, or reporting on past symptoms.

One study looked at 2,181 people in Detroit, ages 18–45, for differences in traumatic experiences and the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It was found that men have more traumatic experiences than women over their entire lifespan. Even so, women were twice as likely to develop PTSD as men. The reason for this is believed to be that women are more likely to develop PTSD if the experience involves violent crimes such as sexual violence. Women who fell victim to violent crimes were 36% likely to develop PTSD, while men were only 6% likely. Women also suffer from PTSD longer than men.

Women and men are equally likely to develop schizophrenia. However, the disease first appears in men at a younger age. It is speculated that the dimorphic brain in men, estrogen and androgen levels, and increased drug use in adolescence lead to men showing symptoms of the disease earlier. Estrogen is believed to reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia . This effect of the hormone is most noticeable with the intensity of symptoms of the disease in pregnant women. The level of estrogen is higher during pregnancy. Women who have previously experienced breakdowns from the condition usually do not have breakdowns during their pregnancy. However, when the pregnancy is over and the estrogen level drops again, those affected often suffer from postpartum psychosis. In addition, psychotic symptoms often appear in the menstrual cycle when estrogen levels are lowest. It has also been found in clinical studies that the administration of estrogen leads to a reduction in symptoms.

Gambling addiction is more common in men. The ratio of men to women is 2: 1. One study looked at gender differences among gambling addicts who sought help from a hotline. There were a total of 562 calls of which 62.1% were made by men and 37.9% by women. Men were more likely to suffer from addiction to strategic games such as blackjack and poker. Female gambling addicts were more likely to be addicted to non-strategic games such as bingo and slots. In general, men have had more gambling addiction than women. Female gambling addicts were more likely to report receiving psychological treatment for other mental problems. Male gambling addicts frequently reported having a drug problem as well and having been arrested for gambling addiction. The rates of debt and other mental health problems were higher among gambling addicts than the average population, regardless of gender.

There are also gender-specific differences with regard to suicide . In Western societies, men are more likely to commit suicide, although women are more likely to attempt suicide.

After the theory of the extreme male brain (Extreme male brain theory) is autism seen as an extreme version of gender differences in terms of systematization and empathize. The theory of the embossed brain (Brain Theory Imprinted) states that autism and psychoses are opposite diseases which are caused by an unbalanced genetic imprinting, autism due to excessive paternal imprinting and psychoses due to high maternal imprinting.

Behavior control

Women seem to have a greater basic ability to control unwanted behavior than men. A meta-analysis from 2010 came to the conclusion that women react more strongly to punishments and are able to control their behavior better, across cultures. A 2014 study, however, came to the conclusion that women have more control over their behavior, but that the differences strongly depended on the situation, type of task and sample.

Probable causes

biology

Inheritance

It is assumed that the expression of personality traits is related to the chromosomal gender of the person. There are also gender-influenced characteristics. With them, the phenotypic expression of the characteristics over the life span is strongly influenced by the gender of the person. Even in a true dominant or recessive woman, a trait might not be fully developed. There are also features that only occur in one sex, as it is caused by autosomal or sex chromosomes.

It is also believed that the different brain structures of men and women are caused by heredity.

Epigenetics

Epigenetic changes are also blamed for different brain structures in men and women. The gender-specific differences in the area of ​​epigenetics have not yet been fully investigated and documented.

Brain structure and function

There are some gender differences in the areas of brain structure, neurotransmitters, and brain function. However, it is also said that some differences in neurobiology between men and women have not yet been finally discovered and identified.

Male brains are, on average, 11-12% heavier and 10% larger than female brains. However, since women also have less body weight, the brain is the same size in relation to body mass in men and women. Scientists also found a greater complexity and strength in the area of ​​the cortex in women, as well as a larger cortical surface when compared to the brain volume of men. Since the complexity of the cortex is strongly correlated with intelligence , it is believed that the female brain evolved to compensate for the lower brain mass and, overall, to acquire the same cognitive abilities as men. The neuropil is more developed in women. This is a nerve plexus that is located in the central nervous system between the cell bodies. In addition, in women the neurons in the prefrontal cortex and temporal cortex are closer to each other than in men. Women also have a stronger cortex in the posterior temporal and inferior parietal area , regardless of their brain size or body mass.

Although there are statistical differences in the range of white and gray matter in the brain , some researchers say that these differences are caused solely by differences in brain volume. Other researchers believe that gender differences persist even when brain volume is included.

A meta-analysis from the year 2013 came to realize that men more gray brain matter in the amygdala , the hippocampus , the anterior parahippocampal gyrus , the cingulate gyrus posterior , the precuneus and the putamen had. However, women had more gray matter in the frontal polus, inferior frontal gyrus, medius frontal gyrus, temporal planum , operculum , anterior cingulate gyrus, insular cortex and transverse temporal gyrus , bilateral thalami and precuneus; the left parahippocampal gyrus and the lateral occipital lobe . The meta-analysis showed that the larger volumes of gray brain matter in women occurred primarily in the right hemisphere of the brain in the areas responsible for language. Also in some limbic structures such as the right insular cortex and the anterior cingulate gyrus.

A 2013 meta-analysis by Amber Ruigrok found that the gray matter density in men was greater in the left amygdala, hippocampus, insular cortex, palladium, putamen, claustrum, and right cerebellum . In women, a greater density of gray matter in the left temporal lobe was found.

According to a series from the journal Progress in Brain Research , it has been found that men have longer and larger temporal planes and lateral sulcus . In women, however, a larger proportional volume was found in the superior temporal cortex, Broca's area , hippocampus, and caudate nucleus . The sagittal plane and number of connections in the anterior commissure that connects the temporal lobes and the intermediate mass that connects the thalami is greater in women.

In the area of ​​the cerebral cortex, it was found that there is greater neural activity within the lobes in men and more neural activity between the lobes (between the left and right hemispheres and the cerebral cortex) in women. In the cerebellum, which plays an important role in controlling movement , men have more connections between the hemispheres, while women show more connections within the hemispheres of the brain. These differences in brain structure could ultimately explain differences in psychology. While women are usually better at recognizing emotions and at non-verbal processing, men are usually better when it comes to tasks in the area of motor skills or spatial orientation.

Hormones

The hormone testosterone appears to play an important role in the sexual motivation of primates , such as humans. When testosterone is decreased in adulthood, sexual motivation also decreases. Men whose testicular function was suppressed by GnRH antagonists showed a decreased sex drive and masturbated less frequently two weeks after the procedure. It is also believed that the hormone influences men's choice of type of relationship. For example, men in polyamorous relationships have higher testosterone levels than men in monogamous relationships or single men.

Research has also been conducted into the preferences women have when choosing a partner over the menstrual cycle. Women who did not take the pill and who ovulated (high levels of estrogen) showed a high preference for the smell of men with low levels of fluctuating asymmetry . Other researchers concluded that ovulating heterosexual women have a preference for more masculine faces and are more attracted to other men than their current partner. However, a meta-analysis of 58 studies came to the conclusion that this hypothesis cannot be scientifically proven. Another meta-analysis supported the hypothesis, but only for short-term sexual attraction. However, a 2016 study concluded that sexual attraction during ovulation, either to one's partner or to other men, was dependent on the quality of the current relationship. If the quality was high, the women were even more drawn to their partner during ovulation.

Culture

Fundamental gender-specific differences in the area of ​​heredity, hormones and brain structure and functions can manifest themselves as cultural phenomena (e.g. mainly male soldiers etc.). Differences in the socialization of women and men can reinforce or weaken psychological differences.

See also

Portal: Psychology  - Overview of Wikipedia content on the subject of psychology
Portal: Sexuality  - Overview of Wikipedia content on the topic of sexuality
Portal: Transgender  - Overview of Wikipedia content on the topic of transgender

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

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