Religious politics

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With religious policy a legal and cultural policy is described that actively acts on the existing standards, which describe the relationship between state and religious communities - according to the constitutional law on religion or ecclesiastical law . In a broader sense, religious policy is part of the process of reforming religion and renegotiating the role of religions, which is becoming increasingly important in the recent past as well as in the present.

In the Bonn Republic before 1989, these foundations, which form the basis of a fundamental compromise in the Weimar Constitution , were neither specifically addressed nor changed for a long time. Internationally, religious policy received little attention due to the long prevailing postulate of an increasingly secularized modernity . For a long time, the European Union was also seen as a purely secular political community in which religion was not an issue. With the Treaty of Maastricht, and in particular the Treaty of Lisbon , there was a reform of the constitutional law of religion at European level. The increasing importance of religions, contrary to the secularization thesis, has led to the idea of ​​a post-secular society, according to Jürgen Habermas .

Religious political foundations

Classic religious-political models

In the EU , one can distinguish three models of religious policy, which regulate the institutional relationship between state and religion very differently:

State Church

In the case of the state church , a certain religious community or denomination is declared the official religion in a state, such as in Greece the autocephalous national orthodox church by Article 3 of the Greek constitution

Secularism

The secularism as a strict separation of church and state in France except for the German time zones (see. Concordat of 1801 ) since 1905, ruling constitutional tradition. This law goes back to the conflict over the role of the Catholic Church that had existed since the French Revolution , in which the anti-clerical tendency finally gained the upper hand, which wanted to radically weaken the influence of the Church, especially in the school system. Since then, different interpretations of this principle have existed side by side: a liberal one, which primarily emphasizes the general freedom of religion, and a radical one, which generally wants to oust religion from politics and the public. In France, too, there were forms of promoting cooperation between state and church and rapprochement after the First World War . The maintenance of Catholic church buildings from before 1905 is, for example, a matter for the state preservation of monuments, because all church property was expropriated and nationalized in 1789 - in return for this, expenses of the Catholic Church and the salaries of its employees were financed by the state until 1905, which is a kind of Catholic state church had created. This funding was canceled without replacement in 1905, but the preservation of the state-owned church buildings is still a matter for the state. In contradiction to the wording of the Separation Act of 1905, religious communities, especially the Roman Catholic Church and Islam, are currently being promoted in a variety of ways. The actual legal situation is often confusing and contradicting the details.

The Turkey sees itself as per Article 2 of its Constitution as a "democratic secular and social state of law." Turkish secularism includes strong state control of religion; all religions, as well as the main religion, Sunni Islam, are under state supervision. Kemalist parties are now in the opposition, Turkish secularism has been increasingly weakened, this also in the resistance against sometimes violent resistance, including the strictly Kemalist military.

Cooperation model

In Germany, a state church law from the Weimar Constitution applies , which has sometimes been characterized as a " limping separation ". It is shaped by the Weimar church compromise with state church law treaties, concordat and the principle of subsidiarity . According to Campenhausen, the German separation of church and state is less defensive or marginal than in France, but emphasizes the equality of consideration and support. The defense against discrimination, including against non-religious people, and the safeguarding of individual freedom takes place through the neutral endowment of legal areas such as marriage, school, social welfare, monument protection and the like. am, which does not force the citizen under the principles of a foreign denomination. The current state church law interpretation does not see the German constitution in line with the demand to ignore and level the religious and one is far from seeing atheism as the sole model of the constitution. The state is also not obliged to create equality of success. Associations of free thinkers and atheists in Germany initially saw German state church law as a form of discrimination. Meanwhile, among others, the Federation for Freedom of the Spirit and the Federation of Free Religious Communities in Germany are recognized as a corporation under public law analogous to the religious communities. Like other smaller religious communities, they are publicly funded; a right to speak for all non-denominationalists, but not recognized.

EU-wide religious policy issues

The growing together of the European Union could, sooner or later , endanger a German specialty - namely the “ bundle of privileges ” anchored in German state church law . The term “bundle of privileges” summarizes rights and advantages that are granted to churches and other religious and ideological communities that have the status of a public corporation in Germany .

Dealing with religious symbols in EU public spaces

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The handling of religious symbols in public space is regulated differently in the individual EU states. The European Court of Human Rights has ruled differently in its judgments, taking regional traditions into account.

The conflict over the inclusion of a reference to God in a future EU constitution

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During the negotiations on the Treaty on a Constitution for Europe , a dispute arose over the inclusion of an Invocatio Dei , a (Christian) reference to God , in the preamble of a future EU constitution.

The lack of reference in the draft constitution to Europe's Christian roots was criticized on the conservative side. The demand for a reference to God in the constitution, which mainly Catholic countries such as Poland , Ireland and Italy had represented, was also confirmed by the Roman Catholic Church and the Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD).

In contrast, France , which traditionally attaches great importance to the separation of church and state , refused to include the reference to God in the preamble and pushed through a compromise formulation that only refers generally to the “cultural, religious and humanistic traditions of Europe”. Since the 2004 treaty was signed but never entered into force, this issue remains open for future negotiations.

Disputes about the validity of Sharia norms

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As a community of values, the EU is confronted with legal-political demands by Islamist , neo-fundamentalist groups (e.g. IGMG and FIOE ) and Salafist circles that are incompatible with its Charter of Fundamental Rights , which are the Sharia , theocratic Islamic law and law that regulates all areas of life , want to establish validity in EU member states - also based on the Wahhabi model. The term Sharia denotes a religiously founded system of divine law: According to Islamic belief, laws and legal norms come directly from Allah . They are based on three sources: the Koran revealed by Allah , the hadith collections, traditions of the normative speeches and actions of the Prophet Mohammed and the Sunnah , the interpretations, the commentaries - mainly medieval - Islamic theologians and legal scholars. God's law is superior to human laws.

In dealing with the legal and political validity claims of Islam, the EU points out that religious freedom does not represent an unlimited right, but that religious freedom finds its limits when norms collide with other fundamental rights. It is about the defense of the EU's fundamental values , as they are legally binding for all member states in the European Convention on Human Rights of the Council of Europe . In the judgment of the welfare party vs. Turkey has explained to the European Court of Human Rights that and why the Sharia is incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights:

"The Court concurs in the Chamber's view that sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy, as set forth in the Convention."

Both the Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam and the Arab Charter of Human Rights make all basic and human rights subject to Sharia law. The Sharia is the frame of reference for its validity. In addition, there is no Arab human rights court where one can sue for fundamental rights.

In this context, futurological "mind games" by the then Dutch Justice Minister Piet Hein Donner provoked a wave of protests in 2006 :

“For me it is certain that if two thirds of all Dutch people want to introduce Sharia tomorrow, then this possibility must be given. Could it be thwarted legally? It would also be a scandal to say 'that is not allowed!'. The majority counts. That is the essence of democracy. "

Sharia norms disadvantage women especially in inheritance, marriage and family law. They grant the man the right to chastise in marriage .

According to a report in the Berlin tabloid BZ, the Rhineland-Palatinate Justice Minister Jochen Hartloff (SPD) considers the introduction of private Sharia arbitration courts in civil law to be conceivable, which the parties to the dispute could invoke on a voluntary basis - as is already common practice in Great Britain . Justice Minister Jochen Hartloff had said according to the BZ report:

In civil legal disputes, he believes Sharia courts in the form of arbitration courts are possible. No criminal offenses should be negotiated, only disputes over money, divorce and inheritance. Both parties to the dispute would have to accept such an Islamic court. In addition, the Sharia is only acceptable in a modern form.

In the states of the EU, the Sharia can develop legal effects through the interpretation of private international law (IPR) - especially in family law - if a matter has a foreign connection. In these conflict cases, international private law answers the question of whether German law or foreign law is applicable.

In Germany, however, the validity of foreign law has its limits if it contradicts public policy , if it is incompatible with the essential principles of domestic law.

In Germany in 2007 there was a scandal about the so-called Frankfurt Koran decision , about the behavior of a family judge at the Frankfurt am Main district court in divorce proceedings between two Muslims who were married "according to the provisions of the Koran", according to Moroccan law. The 26-year-old Muslim woman was beaten by her husband and threatened with death. A divorce before the end of the year of separation seemed to be the only way out of the terror of her husband. A Frankfurt magistrate refused a related application for legal aid on the basis of PIL and decided that foreign Sharia norms were to be applied in this case, and she argued with the Koran, Medical Sura 4 an-Nisā ' (The Women) verse 34 :

“ Men are above women because God has distinguished them ... And if you fear that women will revolt, then admonish them, avoid them in the marriage bed and beat them! If they obey you again, don't do anything against them! God is exalted and great. "

- 4:34 after Paret

The right to chastise men is based on the Koran. After the intervention of the plaintiff's lawyer, the Frankfurt district court declared the judge to be biased and transferred the proceedings to another competent judge.

On January 22, 2019, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe passed a resolution entitled “The Sharia - The Cairo Declaration and the European Convention on Human Rights” . In its resolution, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe expresses itself “deeply concerned” that “the Sharia, including provisions that clearly contradict the European Declaration of Human Rights (ECHR), are being applied officially or unofficially in several member countries of the Council of Europe, either across the country or in parts of the country ”. The European Center for Law and Justice (ECLJ) wrote in a press release that although the resolution was not of a mandatory nature, it was "of the utmost political importance". While 69 MPs voted for the resolution, the 14 Turkish and Azerbaijani MPs voted unanimously against it.

Regional religious policy issues

Same-sex marriage

In France, the Civil Solidarity Pact (also PACS [ paks ] from the French pacte civil de solidarité ) had been possible since 1999, a civil law registered partnership with community of property, joint tax assessment and tax-favorable inheritance provisions, which was largely undisputed and used regardless of sexual orientation could be. A full same-sex marriage was only possible on May 29, 2013. The project caused public controversy and was directly linked to the division of the country into supporters and opponents of the monarchy and the rights of the Catholic Church , which had existed since the French Revolution (or the secular legislation of 1905) . In January 2013, several hundred thousand people demonstrated for or against the introduction of same-sex marriage.

Swiss minaret dispute

The minaret of the Mahmud Mosque (Zurich) in 2013 in the colors of the rainbow flag

The Swiss minaret dispute began in 2007. In 2009, it led to the inclusion of a building ban in the federal constitution of the Swiss Confederation in a referendum . A special feature of the dispute is the ban aimed solely at minarets, not mosques per se. This makes it legally more difficult to assume a violation of religious freedom, since the free practice of religion itself is not called into question by the availability of places of worship. The problem here was the visual or acoustic presence of the Islamic communities and their buildings in public. The public rejection of minarets in Switzerland was a relatively new phenomenon. The 1963 construction of the Mahmud Mosque - with an oversized minaret - in Zurich in 1964 hardly triggered any criticism.

Disputes with the renewed German Jewish community

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In Germany, the religious political debate intensified in 2012 - and attracted international attention - as a result of the circumcision ruling by the Cologne Regional Court, which assessed circumcision of minors for religious reasons as bodily harm.

The 1st small criminal chamber of the Cologne Regional Court took the view that the child's right to physical integrity and self-determination should take precedence over the parents' right to religious child-rearing. For Jewish and Muslim believers, this judgment represented an unacceptable interference with the religious communities ' right to self-determination . This controversy on religious policy resulted in an extension of the Civil Code to include Section 1631d , which now regulates the circumcision of male children for non-medical , i.e. religious, motives. The question of whether this extension of the BGB will survive a possible constitutional review by the Federal Constitutional Court remains open for the time being.

Other religiously based and subsequently granted by authorities exemptions, such as for the ritual shafts , so the slaughter of animals without stunning - due to kosher - or halal -Speisevorschriften - to call again the protest from animal rights activists out.

Islam in Germany

According to projections by the MLD study Muslim Life in Germany (2008), between 3.8 and 4.3 million Muslims live in Germany , which corresponds to around 5% of the total population. They belong to different different Islamic faiths, in percent:

Sunnis (74.1%), Alevis (12.7%), Shiites (7.1%), Ahmadiyyas (1.7%), Ibadis (0.3%), Sufis (0.1%), others ( 4.0%) .

While the liturgical ringing of bells in Christian churches is permitted - according to a decision by the Federal Administrative Court - because it lies within the usual, historically developed order ( social adequacy ), the admissibility of the Islamic call to prayer, the Adhān from the minaret of the mosques , is controversially debated.

In contrast to the Christian denominations, the Muslim religious community has no church structure and no registered membership. According to the MLD study, around 20% of the members living in Germany are in a religious association. This is to be seen against the background of the claim of the Muslim associations to be recognized as a representative representation of all Muslims in Germany.

In order to put the relationship between the German state and the Muslims living here on a sustainable basis, the federal government set up the first German Islam Conference (DIK) in 2006 . It was about the permanent establishment of an institutionalized cooperation between the state and Muslims with the aim of a better religion and integration policy : the German state was looking for a central contact for dialogue with Muslims.

The major Islamic umbrella organizations that took part in the conference, the ZMD , the DITIB , the IR and the VIKZ , also had an interest in creating a central coordinating council for Muslims . So far, Muslims in Germany have not yet been recognized as a religious community, which would be the prerequisite for obtaining corporate status under public law, a status that would bring numerous special rights and tax advantages . The official recognition of a central religious umbrella organization as a spokesman for Islam as a religious community would also enable the introduction of a regular school subject for Islamic religious teaching .

Following the Islam Conference, the four major Islamic umbrella organizations ZMD , DITIB , IR and VIKZ joined forces on April 11, 2007 to form the KRM, the coordinating council of Muslims in Germany , with the aim of making this platform the central spokesperson for all German Muslims should be towards the state.

Islamic religious instruction as a regular school subject

Article 7, Paragraph 3 of the Basic Law regulates that religious instruction in state schools must be given in accordance with the principles of the respective religious communities.

Against the background of the results of the German Islam Conference - with the creation of the Coordination Council of Muslims in Germany - the North Rhine-Westphalian state government already saw the legal requirements as being met in order to be able to introduce Islamic religious studies as a regular school subject in NRW , although Islam was recognized as a Religious community with corporate status for all Muslim faiths is pending. On December 22, 2011, the state parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia passed the law on the introduction of Islamic religious instruction as a regular subject , in the hope that the state will have an Islamic umbrella organization at its disposal for the foreseeable future as a contact for the Muslim religious community when organizing religious education will. Until then, the state of North Rhine-Westphalia forms an advisory board:

Section 132 a (4): The ministry forms an advisory board that represents the concerns and interests of Islamic organizations in the introduction and implementation of Islamic religious instruction according to paragraph 1 as a regular subject. The Advisory Board determines whether the religious instruction complies with the principles within the meaning of Article 7 Paragraph 3 Clause 2 of the Basic Law .

Filling of chairs for Islamic theology and Islamic religious education subject to the KRM

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From 2004 to 2010 Sven Muhammad Kalisch was full professor for the religion of Islam at the Center for Religious Studies (CRS) of the Westphalian Wilhelms University in Münster. With his appointment, for the first time in the history of North Rhine-Westphalia, prospective teachers for Islamic religious instruction or its substitute subject Islamic Studies were trained at a German university: As the first university professor for Islamic theology at the University of Münster, Sven Kalisch was allowed to teach Islamic studies in German Train schools. As a scientist, however, he also dared to publicly doubt that Mohammed actually lived.

If a professor is to be appointed to a Catholic faculty, a clearance certificate "Nihil obstat" from the bishop is required : there is nothing against it . He is also obliged to teach in accordance with the dogmatic principles of faith, otherwise the bishop can withdraw his teaching authorization . The freedom of research are thereby narrow limits: an open-ended research is not possible.

As the case of Sven Muhammad Kalisch shows, similar provisional rules also apply to the appointment of professorships in Islamic theology and religious education at German universities. In fact, the Muslim umbrella organizations already have the same say as the churches.

International issues

Scientology

View of a seven-story, modern building, predominantly gray and white, with a cross-like symbol and large letters spelling "Church of Scientology" at the top.
Scientology in Berlin

The Church of Scientology in Germany is not a corporation under public law , but a registered association (eV). Whether the Church of Scientology actually represents a religious community in the legal sense has not been conclusively clarified by the German courts. In Germany, in contrast to the USA, Scientology is viewed and observed more as a commercial enterprise and also as an anti-constitutional organization and in that sense has none of the advantages of a recognized religious community. As a result of this, as well as because of the way individual members were dealt with, there were regular conflicts with the American government, which recognizes Scientology as a religion and regards German requirements as a violation of religious freedoms.

Web links

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b Religious Politics - Public - Science: Studies on the Reforming of Religion in the Present Martin Baumann, Frank Neubert, Theologischer Verlag Zurich, 2011
  2. ↑ European Religious Policy, Politics and Religion, Volume 14, 2013, pp. 141–151. On the genesis of the European constitutional law of religion as a responsive order - or: The European bull leap, Prof. Dr. in the. Michael Droege
  3. ↑ European Religious Policy Politics and Religion Volume 14, 2013, pp 175-196 On the way to a European religious constitutional law? - Current considerations from a German perspective, Prof. Dr. in the. Ansgar Hense
  4. ^ Christian Walter: The relationship between religion and state in selected European states: differences and similarities . In: Langenfeld, Schneider: Law and Religion in Europe - Contemporary Conflicts and Historical Perspectives . PDF text p. 204.
  5. ^ Current constitution of Greece
  6. ↑ a b Axel Freiherr von Campenhausen , article in Humboldt Forum Recht (2008): State and religion according to the Basic Law (pdf, 5 pages)
  7. ↑ Ayse Nuhoğlu: Religious Freedom in Turkey and the Criminal Law ( Memento of the original from November 4, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 230 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.jura.uni-wuerzburg.de
  8. ↑ Christian Sailer: Limping separation or upright gait? On the relationship between state and church in Germany . (PDF; 113 kB) Revised lecture given to the Heinrich Böll Foundation on September 19, 2003.
  9. ^ Equality or privileges ?: the general and the special equality principle in state church law, Martin Heckel, Mohr Siebeck, January 1, 1993, and a. Pp. 45 and 82
  10. ↑ : EU law attacks German churches from the flanks . ( Memento of the original from November 1, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. EKD archive, 2002. Michael Brenne: The German state church law before the challenges of Europeanization . In: H. Behr, M. Hildebrandt (Hrsg.): Politics and religion in the EU. Between national traditions and Europeanization . 2006, pp. 137-153. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ekd.de
  11. ^ Anne Françoise Weber: Why Brussels is becoming more and more important for believers. The religious policy of the European Union . Deutschlandradio Kultur, July 9, 2011. Matthias Kortmann: How do the others do it - religious politics in the Netherlands .
  12. ↑ European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) allows Christian crosses in the workplace . derwesten.de , January 15, 2013.
  13. ↑ Peter Häberle : God in the Constitutional State? In: Festschrift for Wolfgang Zeidler , volume 1. de Gruyter, Berlin 1987, ISBN 3-11-011057-1 , pp. 3-18. Hans Maier : God's formulas On the dispute over the name of God in constitutions and contracts ( Memento of the original from February 27, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.hhmaier.de
  14. ↑ Different positions: “God” in the EU constitution? A polyphonic choir with mission dance . kirchensteuern.de
  15. ↑ Eugen Biser Foundation : Proposal for the text of the preamble to the EU Constitution (PDF; 78 kB) from September 26, 2003:
    “The Member States and the citizens of Europe are determined to take responsibility before God , people and creation and Conscious of their Christian , philosophical and humanistic heritage, to maintain and consolidate peace together for the future as well. The European Union is based on common, indivisible and universal human rights and the common values ​​of freedom, equality, the rule of law, tolerance and solidarity. "
  16. ^ Department of State Security ST 33 - (AKIPP): Salafism in Germany. Origin - dynamics - relevance  ( page no longer accessible , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Berlin 2011, available at ipa-italia.it@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.ipa-italia.it  
  17. ↑ a b Ministry of the Interior of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia: Islamism - Abuse of a Religion ( Memento of the original from August 29, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 1.2 MB), 2008, p. 27 ff, available on the server of the Ministry of the Interior and Municipal Affairs of North Rhine-Westphalia @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.mik.nrw.de
  18. ↑ Christine Schirrmacher : Introduction to the subject of “Sharia” - origin, content, significance for Europe , article on the author's website from February 28, 2012.
  19. ↑ Tilman Nagel : Can there be a secularized Islam? ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 742 kB), contribution to an anthology of the Hanns Seidel Foundation, pp. 9–21, Munich 2001. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.hss.de
  20. ↑ Case of Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) and others v. Turkey . Judgment - Grand Chamber of The European Court of Rights, February 13, 2003, Applications nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98
  21. ↑ Dieter Becker : The Project of Enlightenment in Controversy and Competition with Islam ( Memento of the original from March 2, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 252 kB), p. 11, available on Dieter Becker's website at the Augustana University in Neuendettelsau @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.augustana.de
  22. ^ Sharia could come via democracy: Dutch minister ( Memento of September 29, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  23. ↑ In Great Britain, Sharia courts can pronounce final judgments , Heise online , September 15, 2008
  24. ↑ German minister wants to introduce Sharia law , in: Merkur online February 3, 2012
  25. ↑ SPD minister considers Sharia judges to be conceivable for us
  26. ↑ Germany: Discussion about Sharia law , available on the server of the Federal Agency for Civic Education March 14, 2012
  27. ^ Mathias Rohe : Sharia in Germany? ( Memento of the original from July 4, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 24 kB) on the website of Prof. Dr. Mathias Rohe , Director of the Erlangen Center for Islam and Law in Europe (EZIRE), University of Erlangen - Publications on Law and Islam @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.zr2.jura.uni-erlangen.de
  28. ↑ Barbara Schneider: Sharia finds its way into German courtrooms , in: Die Welt, February 1, 2012.
  29. ^ Sharia law in Germany? FACT check: Islamic law ; New Germany , October 16, 2010.
  30. ↑ a b Press release from the Frankfurt am Main District Court on the case
  31. ↑ "The exercise of the right to punishment does not justify unreasonable hardship according to § 1565 BGB [...] Both parties come from the Moroccan culture, in which it is not uncommon for the man to exercise the right to punish the woman. The applicant, who was born in Germany, had to reckon with this when she married the opponent who grew up in Morocco. ”Jörg Lau: Sharia law in Frankfurt, justification of violence with Koran - judge withdrawn ; in: Zeit Online March 21, 2007.
  32. ^ Sharia, the Cairo Declaration and the European Convention on Human Rights , Resolution 2253 (2019) Provisional version
  33. ↑ Literally: ... is "greatly concerned about the fact that Sharia law - including provisions which are in clear contradiction with the Convention - is applied, either officially or unofficially, in several Council of Europe member States, or parts thereof" , cf. . SHARIA: IMPORTANT RESOLUTION ADOPTED , publication of the website of the ECLJ
  34. ↑ On the ECLJ cf. the WP entry on American Center for Law and Justice
  35. ↑ Literally: "This resolution - although non-binding - is of major political importance, as it reflects an awareness that Islamic law constitutes a competing legal-religious order to the law of Western modernity, both in Europe and at the universal level" ; see. Note above: website of the ECLJ
  36. ^ Council of Europe: “Sharia contradicts human rights” , Zukunft.ch
  37. ^ First gay marriage in France. spiegel.de, May 29, 2013, accessed May 30, 2013
  38. ↑ Thomas Hanke: The divided France. handelsblatt.de of May 27, 2013, accessed on May 27, 2013
  39. ↑ Hundreds of thousands against gay marriage. tagesschau.de, January 13, 2013, archived from the original on January 9, 2014 ; Retrieved March 3, 2016 .
  40. ↑ Photo gallery leFigaro.fr, March 27, 2013
  41. ↑ Article LeMonde.fr lemonde.fr, March 24, 2013
  42. ^ Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation: Article 72 Church and State
  43. ^ Neue Zürcher Zeitung : No problems despite the minaret. The construction of the Mahmud Mosque in Zurich 43 years ago hardly triggered any criticism. , September 23, 2006
  44. ↑ 151 Ns 169/11 - Cologne Regional Court full text (PDF; 68 kB)
  45. ↑ Chronicle of the events see also: tagesspiegel.de
  46. ^ Rolf Dietrich Herzberg: Permit circumcision legally? (PDF; 966 kB) In: Journal for International Criminal Law Dogmatics (ZIS), 10/12, pp. 486–505.
  47. ↑ shafts in Germany .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. German Animal Welfare Association V. Tormented Victim: Shafts in Germany ( Memento of the original from September 3, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , German Animal Welfare Association V.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.tierschutzbund.de   @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / europenews.dk
  48. ↑ Muslim Life in Germany , p. 57ff.
  49. ↑ Muslim Life in Germany , p. 98
  50. ↑ Judgment of the BVerwG of October 7, 1983 on the ringing of liturgical bells
  51. ↑ Call to prayer over Eschweiler. The muezzin resounds over German roofs .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ZDF.de January 25, 2013. Debate about the call to prayer . The Alliance of Islamic Congregations in Northern Germany V.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.zdf.de  
  52. ↑ Muslim Life in Germany , p. 167
  53. ↑ Thomas Traub: Discussion about recognition: Islam and the Basic Law. In: Legal Tribune ONLINE, October 8, 2010, http://www.lto.de/persistent/a_id/1671/ (accessed on August 23, 2013)
  54. ↑ Simone Spriewald: Legal issues in connection with the introduction of Islamic religious instruction as a regular subject in German schools ( Memento of the original from July 14, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 4.6 MB), Dissertation 2003 Freie Universität Berlin, in: Juristic Series Tenea, Vol. 33, Berlin 2003, pp. 178ff. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.jurawelt.com
  55. ↑ a b Law on the introduction of Islamic religious education as a regular subject of December 22, 2011. 7th School Law Amendment Act, In: Gesetz- und Verordnungsblatt (GV. NRW.) Edition 2011 No. 34 of December 30, 2011. pp. 725–732 .
  56. ↑ The Sven Kalisch case : Hardly veiled threat. In: Der Spiegel. 39/2008.
  57. ^ Karl-Heinz Ohlig : The creation of new problems. University centers for Islamic religion teachers, in: imprimatur, issue 8/2010, on the archive server of the Saarland University and State Library
  58. ↑ Melanie Longerich: Muhammad is no longer - Sven Kalisch and Islam . In: DLF magazine May 6, 2010, dradio.de.
  59. ↑ Legal questions on religious and ideological communities. Scientific Services of the German Bundestag, WD 3, No. 05/07, January 29, 2007 (PDF; 76 kB).
  60. ↑ Suspected case: Scientology organization. On: Verfassungsschutz.Sachsen.de. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
  61. ↑ BfV: Scientology Organization ( Memento of the original from February 10, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.verfassungsschutz.de
  62. ↑ US State Department: International Religious Freedom Report 2010 - Germany.