Erythroviruses and Exercise Strikeback: Difference between pages

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'''Operation Strikeback''' was a major [[Navy|naval]] [[Military exercise|exercise]] of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) that took place over a ten-day period in September 1957.
#Redirect [[Erythrovirus]]

As part of a series of exercises to simulate an all-out [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] attack on [[NATO]], Operation Strikeback was tasked with two objectives. Its initial objective was the deployment of NATO's naval forces (designated the "Blue Fleet") against other NATO forces attempting to simulate an "enemy" navy that featured a large number of submarines (designated the "Orange Fleet"). Its other objective was to have the Blue Fleet execute [[Alpha strike|carrier-based air strikes]] against "enemy" formations and emplacements along NATO's northern flank in [[Norway]].

Operation Strikeback involved over 200 warships, 650 aircraft, and 75,000 personnel from the [[United States Navy]], the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom's]] [[Royal Navy]], the [[Royal Canadian Navy]], the [[French Navy]], the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]], and the [[Royal Norwegian Navy]]. As the largest peacetime naval operation up to that time, military analyst [[Hanson W. Baldwin]] of the [[New York Times|''New York Times'']] characterized Operation Strikeback as "constituting the strongest striking fleet assembled since World War II."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Baldwin |first=Hanson W. |authorlink=Hanson W. Baldwin |coauthors= |year=1957 |month=22 September |title="100 Fighting Ships in Vast Exercise" |journal=[[New York Times|''New York Times'']] |volume= |issue= |pages= |id= |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40F16F83F5D157A93C0AB1782D85F438585F9 |accessdate=2009-09-28 |quote= }}</ref>

==Background==
===Strategic doctrine issues===
[[Image:President Eisenhower and John Foster Dulles in 1956.jpg|thumb|[[United States Secretary of State]] [[John Foster Dulles]] with [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1956]]

Faced the overwhelming numerical superiority of [[Soviet Union]] and [[Warsaw Pact]] military forces, NATO embraced the concept of the [[nuclear umbrella]] to protect [[Western Europe]] from a Soviet ground invasion.<ref>''NATO the first 15 years'', [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/3.htm Chapter 3], [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/5.htm Chapter 5], [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/7.htm Chapter 7], [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/9.htm Chapter 9] & [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/annexes/b5.htm Annex - Chapter IX-B], accessdate=2008-09-04</ref> This strategy was articulated in January 1954 by [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] [[General (United States)|General]] and then-[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Supreme Allied Commander Europe]] [[Alfred Gruenther]]:
{{Quote|We have... an air-ground shield which, although still not strong enough, would force an enemy to concentrate prior to attack. In doing so, the concentrating force would be extremely vulnerable to losses from atomic weapon attacks... We can now use atomic weapons against an aggressor, delivered not only by long-range aircraft, but also by the use of shorter range planes, and by 280 mm. artillery... This air-ground team constitutes a very effective shield, and it would fight very well in case of attack.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/9.htm |title=Chapter 9 |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work=NATO the first 15 years |publisher= |date=2008-09-04 }}</ref>}}

This strategic concept reflected the American strategy of [[massive retaliation]] of the [[Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower administration]] as set forth by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Foster Dulles]]:

{{Quote|We need allies and [[collective security]]. Our purpose is to make these relations more effective, less costly. This can be done by placing more reliance on deterrent power and less dependence on local defensive power... Local defense will always be important. But there is no local defense which alone will contain the mighty landpower of the Communist world. Local defenses must be reinforced by the further deterrent of massive retaliatory power. A potential aggressor must know that he cannot always prescribe battle conditions that suit him.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/strategy/article-dulles-retaliation_1962-01-25.htm |title="The Evolution of Foreign Policy" |accessdate=2008-09-04 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink=John Foster Dulles |coauthors= |date=12 January 1954 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Department of State, Press Release No. 81 |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref>}}

===Previous NATO exercises===
[[Image:HMS Vanguard - Operation Mainbrace 1952 - I03681.jpg|thumb|right|{{HMS|Vanguard|23|6}} during NATO's [[Operation Mainbrace]] in 1952.]]
Starting in 1952, NATO undertook a number of a major military exercises to improve NATO's integration and effectiveness, including:

*'''[[Operation Mainbrace|Mainbrace]]''' — NATO's first naval exercise
* '''Mariner''' — Naval exercise involving [[convoy]] protection, naval control of shipping, and striking fleet operations in north Atlantic
* '''Italic Weld''' — Combined air-naval-ground exercise in [[northern Italy]] involving the United States, Italy, Turkey, and Greece
* '''Grand Repulse''' — Military exercise in Germany involving the [[British Army on the Rhine]] (BAOR), the Netherlands Corps and [[Allied Air Forces Central Europe]] (AAFCE).
* '''Monte Carlo''' — Simulated atomic air-ground exercise involving the [[Central Army Group]] (CENTAG)
* '''Weldfast''' — A combined amphibious landing exercise in the Mediterranean Sea involving British, Greek, Italian, Turkish, and U.S. naval forces

Operation Strikeback and the other concurrent NATO exercises held during the fall of 1957 would be the most ambitious military undertaking for the alliance to date, involving more than 250,000 men, 300 ships, and 1,500 aircraft operating from Norway to Turkey.<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822470,00.html |title="Operation Mainbrace" |accessdate=2008-09-27 |work= |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] |date=Monday, 22 September 1952 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/9.htm |title=Chapter 9 – The Increase in Strength - International Exercises |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work=NATO the first five years 1949-1954 |publisher=NATO |date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Key Jr. | first=David M. | coauthors= | year=2001 | month= | title=Admiral Jerauld Wright: Warrior among Diplomats | publisher=Sunflower University Press | location=Manhattan, Kansas | isbn=0-89745-25-8 | pages=p. 333 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html |title="Emergency Call" |accessdate=2008-09-27 |work= |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] |date=Monday, 30 September 1957 }}</ref>

===NATO military command structure===
[[Image:NATO Commands 1954.jpg|thumb|right|NATO military command and areas of responsibilities (1954)]]
[[Image:NATO Allied Command Atlantic - July 1954.svg|thumb|right|SACLANT command structure (1954)]]
[[Image:NATO Allied Command Europe - July 1954.svg|thumb|right|SACEUR command structure (1954)]]

With the establishment of NATO’s Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT) on 30 January 1952, the [[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic|Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT)]] joined the previously-created [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR)]] as one of the alliance’s two principal military field commanders.<ref>''NATO The first 5 year'', [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/7.htm Chapter 7 - The Military Structure - Channel Committee and Channel Command]</ref> Also, a Channel Command was established on 21 February 1952 to control the [[English Channel]] and [[North Sea]] area and deny it to the enemy, protect the sea lanes of communication, and Support operations conducted by SACEUR and SACLANT.<ref>[http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/7.htm Chapter 7 - The Military Structure - Atlantic Command] & [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/appendices/1.htm Appendix 1 — Chronicle]</ref> The following key NATO military commands were involved in a series of alliance-wide exercises, including Operation Strikeback, during the Fall of 1957.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/cv/ace-k-p.pdf |title=Who is who at NATO ? |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=[[NATO]] |date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Key, Jr. | first=David M. | coauthors= | year=2001 | month= | title=Admiral Jerauld Wright: Warior among Diplomats | publisher=Sunflower University Press | location=Manhattan, Kansas | isbn=0-89745-251-8 | pages=pp. 329 - 331, 334 - 335, 338 - 342, 357 }}, hereafter referred to as ''Warrior among Diplomats''.</ref>

====Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT)====
* '''[[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic|Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT)]]''' &ndash; [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[Jerauld Wright]], [[USN]]
** '''Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (DSACLANT)''' &ndash; [[Vice-Admiral#United Kingdom|Vice-Admiral]] Sir John Eaton, [[Royal Navy|RN]]
*** '''Chief of Staff (COFS)''' &ndash; [[Vice Admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] Harold Page Smith, [[USN]]
** '''[[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic#Allied Command Eastern Atlantic .28EASTLANT.29|Eastern Atlantic Area (EASTLANT)]]''' &ndash; [[Vice Admiral#United Kingdom|Vice Admiral]] Sir John Eccles, [[Royal Navy|RN]]
** '''[[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic#Allied Command Western Atlantic .28WESTLANT.29|Western Atlantic Area (WESTLANT)]]''' &ndash; [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[Jerauld Wright]], [[USN]]
** '''[[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic#Striking Fleet Atlantic .28STRIKFLTLANT.29|Striking Fleet Atlantic (STRIKFLTLANT)]]''' &ndash; [[Vice Admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] [[Robert B. Pirie]], [[USN]]

====Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE)====
* '''[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR)]]''' &ndash; [[General (United States)|General]] [[Lauris Norstad]], [[USAF]]
** '''Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR)''' &ndash; [[Field Marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] [[Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|The Viscount Montgomery of Alamein]], [[British Army]]
*** '''Chief of Staff (COFS)''' &ndash; [[General (United States)|General]] [[Cortlandt V.R. Schuyler|Courtlandt Van R. Schuyler]], [[United States Army|USA]]
** '''[[Allied Forces Northern Europe|Allied Forces Northern Europe (AFNORTH)]]''' &ndash; [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] Sir C.S. Sugden, [[British Army]]
** '''[[Allied Forces Central Europe|Allied Forces Central Europe {AFCENT)]]''' &ndash; [[Army General (France)|Général d'Armée]] [[Jean-Étienne Valluy]], [[French Army]]
*** '''[[Allied Air Forces Central Europe|Allied Air Forces Central Europe (AAFCE)]]''' &ndash; [[Air Chief Marshal]] [[George Mills (RAF officer)|Sir George Holroyd Mills]], [[RAF]]
*** '''Northern Army Group (NORAG)''' &ndash; [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Richard Nelson Gale|Sir Richard Nelson Gale]], [[British Army]]
*** '''[[Joint Force Command Brunssum|Central Army Group (CENTAG)]]''' &ndash; [[General (United States)|General]] [[Henry I. Hodes]], [[U.S. Army|USA]]
** '''[[Allied Joint Force Command Naples|Allied Forces Southern Europe (AFSOUTH)]]''' &ndash; [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] R.P.M. Bristol, [[USN]]
*** '''Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH)''' &ndash; [[Vice Admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] Charles R. Brown, [[USN]]
** '''Allied Forces Mediterranean (AFMED)''' &ndash; [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Admiral]] Sir R.A.B. Edwards, [[Royal Navy|RN]]

====Allied Channel Command (CHANCOM)====
* Commander-in-Chief Channel (CINCHAN) &ndash; [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Admiral]] Sir Guy Grantham, [[Royal Navy|RN]]

==Operational overview==
[[Image:GIUK gap.png|thumb|right|The "[[GIUK Gap]]".]]
===Scenario===
As part of the response to a theoretical Soviet attack against NATO on all fronts, Operation Strikeback would test the capabilities of Allied naval forces (''Blue Fleet'') by tasking them to destroy the enemy navy (''Orange Fleet'') and its huge submarine fleet, protect transatlantic shipping, and undertake sustained carrier-based air strikes against the enemy positions.<ref>''Warrior among Diplomats''. p. 333 - 334</ref>
===Operation Seaspray===
Beginning on 3 September 1957, American and Canadian naval forces got underway to join British, French, Dutch, and Norwegian naval forces in eastern Atlantic and northern European waters under the overall command of [[Vice Admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] [[Robert B. Pirie]], [[USN]], the Commander of the [[United States Second Fleet|U.S. Second Fleet]], acting as NATO's Commander Striking Fleet Atlantic (COMSTRIKFLTLANT).<ref>{{cite DANFS | title ={{USS|Saratoga|CV-60}} | url= http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/s6/saratoga-vi.htm | accessdate = 2008-10-03 }}</ref> While en route, the U.S.-Canadian naval forces executed ''Operation Seaspray'', a bilateral naval exercises to protect Blue Fleet’s vitally-important underway replenishment group (URG) from enemy submarine attacks.<ref>''USS Wasp'', p. 119</ref> The nuclear submarine {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571|2}} and the conventional submarine {{USS|Trigger|SS-564|2}} completed operations in the Arctic and joined 34 other U.S. and allied submarines temporarily assigned to the Orange Fleet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.thisisdorset.net/2007/10/5/129888.html |title="The day Nautilus came to Portland" |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work=Archive |publisher=[[Dorset Echo|''Dorset Echo'']] |date=October 5, 2007 }}</ref>

===Operation Fend Off and Operation Fishplay===
Operation Strikeback began on 19 September 1957, involving over 200 warships, 650 aircraft, and 65,000 personnel. To provide a more realistic simulation of protecting transatlantic shipping, over 200 merchant marine vessels, including the [[ocean liner]]s {{RMS|Queen Mary|3=2}} and {{SS|Ile de France|3=2}}, also participated as duly-flagged target ships for this NATO exercise.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.thisisdorset.net/2007/10/5/129888.html |title="The day Nautilus came to Portland" |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work=Archive |publisher=[[Dorset Echo|''Dorset Echo'' |date=October 5, 2007 }}</ref> Blue Fleet hunter-killer (HUK) groups centered around the carriers {{USS|Essex|CV-9|2}}, {{USS|Wasp|CV-18|2}}, and {{USS|Tarawa|CV-40|2}}, as well as submarines and land-based anti-submarine patrol aircraft, executed ''Operation Fend Off/Operation Fishplay'' to identify, track, and contain the breakout of the enemy Orange Fleet’s submarine force along the Greenland-Iceland-UK (''GIUK'') gap.<ref>{{cite book | last=Turner Publishing Company Staff | first= | coauthors=USS ''Wasp'' Veterans | year=1999 | month= | title=USS ''Wasp'' Veterans |title= U. S. S. Wasp CV 18 | publisher=Turner Publishing Company | location=Nashville | isbn=9781563114045 | pages=p. 118 }}, hereafter referred to as ''USS Wasp''</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/5748 |title=Norwegian subs during the Cold War |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards |date= }}</ref>

===Carrier-based air strike operations===
Operating above the [[Arctic Circle]] in the [[Norwegian Sea]], the Blue Fleet, which included the new [[Supercarrier|U.S. supercarrier]] {{USS|Saratoga|CV-60|2}} and {{USS|Forrestal|CV-59|2}}, launched carried-based air strikes against enemy positions in [[Norway]]. [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] magazine provided the following contemporary coverage of Operation Strikeback:

{{rquote|right|With that alert...simulated hell broke loose in the North Atlantic.}}

{{Quote|From somewhere southeast of Greenland came the crackle of an urgent radio message: "Being fired on by Orange surface raider ''Inchcliffe Castle''."<ref>''Inchcliffe Castle'' is a fictional ship from the ''Satevepost Glencannon'' stories by [[Guy Gilpatric]].</ref> With that alert from a famed but fictitious merchant vessel, simulated hell broke loose in the North Atlantic. Out to punish the "aggressors," a six-nation Blue fleet totaling nearly 160 fighting ships began steaming toward Norway. In the Iceland-Faeroes gap, 36 Orange submarines, including the atom-powered {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571|2}}, lay in wait. The [[USS Charles R. Ware (DD-865)|U.S. destroyer ''Charles R. Ware'']] was "sunk"; a "torpedo" slowed down the carrier [[USS Wasp (CV-18)|U.S.S. ''Intrepid'']], and [[HMS Ark Royal (R09)|H.M.S. ''Ark Royal'']] had a hot time beating off the assaults of Britain-based [[Vickers Valiant|Valiant jet bombers]]. But by early afternoon, Blue carrier planes got through to make dummy atom attacks on Norway's ports, bridges and airfields. Into the midst of this earnest make-believe strayed a Russian trawler - a real one. The Russian, being overtaken, had the right of way and held it, passing diagonally through the entire NATO fleet as the big ships refueled and moved beyond her.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html |title=Emergency Call |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] |date=Monday, 30 September 1957 }}</ref>}}

===Operation Pipedown===
Following the conclusion of Operation Strikeback, U.S. naval forces conducted ''Operation Pipedown'', involving the protection of its underway replenishment group while en route back the United States.<ref>''USS Wasp'', p. 119</ref>
<gallery>
Image:NATO Operation Strikeback 01.jpg|{{USS|Saratoga|CV-60|6}}, flagship of the Blue Fleet
Image:FJ-3 VF-33 CVA-11.jpg|Flight deck operations onboard the {{USS|Intrepid|CV-11|6}}
Image:North American FJ-3 Fury taking off - Operation Strkeback.jpg|Launch operations onboard the USS ''Intrepid''
Image:USS Nantahala refuels USS Forrestal - Operation Strikeback 1957.jpg|{{USS|Nantahala|AO-60|6}} refuels {{USS|Forrestal|CV-59|6}} on 22 September 1957
</gallery>

===Naval forces for Operation Strikeback===
The following is a partial listing of naval forces known to have participated in Operation Strikeback based on public sources (e.g., [[Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships|''Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships'']] and on-line ship histories), contemporary and archival news accounts, and historical reference works as set forth [[Operation Strikeback#Sources|here]].{{Fact|date=September 2008}}<!--not MOS compatible way of citing. provide inline references to the sources here-->

====Aircraft carriers and embarked air groups====
{| width="100%">
|-
! colspan=2|
|-
| width="50%" valign="top"|
* '''{{USS|Saratoga|CVA-60}} – Blue Fleet flagship'''
** [[Carrier Air Wing Seven|Carrier Group Seven:]]
*** [[VF-61|Fighter Squadron 61 (VF-61)]]
*** Attack Squadron 72 (VA-72)
*** Attack Squadron 75 (VA-75)
*** All-Weather Attack Squadron 33 (VA(AW)-33) Det.
*** [[VFP-62|Light Photographic Squadron 62 (VFP-62)]] Det.
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
* {{USS|Forrestal|CVA-59}}
** [[Carrier Air Wing One|Carrier Group One:]]
*** [[VFA-14|Fighter Squadron 14 (VF-14)]]
*** [[VF-84|Fighter Squadron 84 (VF-84)]]
*** [[VFA-15|Attack Squadron 15 (VA-15)]]
*** Attack Squadron 76 (VA-76)
*** Heavy Attack Squadron 1 (VAH-1)
*** Airborne Early Warning Squadron 12 (VAW-12) Det.
*** All-Weather Attack Squadron 33 (AV(AW)-33) Det.
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
* {{USS|Intrepid|CVA-11}}
** [[Carrier Air Wing Six|Carrier Group Six:]]
*** [[VF-33|Fighter Squadron 33 (VF-33)]]
*** Fighter Squadron 71 (VF-71)
*** [[VFA-25|Attack Squadron 25 (VA-25)]]
*** Attack Squadron 66 (VA-66)
*** Heavy Attack Squadron 11 (VAH-11)
*** All-Weather Attack Squadron 33 (VA(AW)-33) Det.
*** [[VFP-62|Light Photographic Squadron 62 (VFP-62)]] Det.
*** Airborne Early Warning Squadron 12 (VAW-12) Det.
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (UH-2) Det.
* {{USS|Essex|CVA-9}}
** Squadrons embarked:
*** Air Anti-submarine Squadron 36 (VS-36)
*** Anti-submarine Helicopter Squadron 3 (HS-7)
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
| width="50%" valign="top"|
* {{USS|Tarawa|CVS-40}}
** Squadrons embarked:
*** [[VS-32|Air Anti-submarine Squadron 32 (VS-32)]]
*** Anti-submarine Helicopter Squadron 1 (HS-1)
*** Attack Squadron 172 (VA-172)
*** All-Weather Fighter Squadron 4 (VF(AW)-4) Det.
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
* {{USS|Wasp||CVS-18}}
** Squadrons embarked:
*** Attack Squadron 44 (VA-44)
*** Air Anti-submarine Squadron 27 (VS-27)
*** Air Anti-submarine Squadron 30 (VS-30)
*** Anti-submarine Helicopter Squadron 5 (HS-5)
*** Utility Helicopter Squadron 2 (HU-2) Det.
* '''{{HMS|Ark Royal|R09}} – Orange Fleet flagship'''
** Squadrons embarked:
*** 802 Naval Air Squadron
*** [[804 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** [[815 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** 831 Naval Air Squadron
*** [[849 Naval Air Squadron|849B Naval Air Squadron]]
*** 898 Naval Air Squadron
* {{HMS|Bulwark|R08}}
** Squadrons embarked:
*** [[820 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** [[845 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** [[849 Naval Air Squadron|849D Naval Air Squadron]]
*** 891 Naval Air Squadron
* {{HMS|Eagle|R05}}
** Squadrons embarked:
*** [[803 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** [[806 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** 813 Naval Air Squadron
*** [[814 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** [[849 Naval Air Squadron|848A Naval Air Squadron]]
|}

====Naval aircraft====
{| width="100%">
|-
! colspan=3|
|-
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''United States Navy:'''
* '''Fighters:'''
** [[F-9 Cougar|Grumman F-9 Cougar]]
*** VA-76 - F9F-8B
*** VA-44 - F9F-8
*** VA-66 - F9F-8B
*** VFP-62 - F9F-8P
** [[F3H Demon|McDonnell F3H Demon]]
*** VF-14 - F3H-2N
*** VF-61 - F3H-2M
** [[F2H Banshee|Douglas F2H Banshee]]
*** VFP-62 - F2H-2P
*** VF-71 - F2H-3/4
*** VA-172 - F2H-2/2B
**[[FJ-1 Fury|North Amercan FJ-1 Fury]]
*** VF-33 - FJ-3/3M
*** VF-84- FJ-3M
* '''Anti-submarine (ASW) aircraft:'''
** [[P2V Neptune|Lockheed P2V-5F Neptune]]
*** VP-8
*** VP-10
** [[S-2 Tracker|Grumman S2F Tracker]]
*** VS-27- S2F-1/2
*** VS-30 - S2F-1/2
*** VS-32 - S2F-1/2
*** VS-36 - S2F-1/2
| width="33%" valign="top"|
<br />
* '''Attack bombers:'''
** [[Douglas A-4|Douglas A-4 Skyhawk]]
*** VA-72 - A4D-1
** [[A-1 Skyraider|Douglas AD Skyraider]]
*** VAW-12 - AD-5W
*** VA-15 - AD-6
*** VA-25 - AD-6
*** VA(AW)-33 - AD-5N, AD-5Q
*** VA-75 - AD-6
*** VF(AW)-4 – AD-5
** [[A-3 Skywarrior|Douglas A-3 Skywarrior]]
*** VAH-1 - A3D-1
** [[AJ Savage|North American AJ Savage]]
*** VAH-7 – AJ-2
*** VAH-11 – AJ-2
* '''Helicopters:'''
** [[Piasecki H-25|Piasecki HUP-2 Retriever]]
*** HU-2
** [[Sikorsky H-34 Choctaw|Sikorsky HSS-1 Seabat]]
*** HS-5
*** HS-7
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''Royal Navy:'''<br />
* '''Fighters:'''
** [[de Havilland Venom|de Havilland Sea Venom]]:
*** 891 Naval Air Squadron
*** 894 Naval Air Squadron
** [[Hawker Sea Hawk]]:
*** 802 Naval Air Squadron
*** [[803 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** [[804 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** [[806 Naval Air Squadron]]
** 898 Naval Air Squadron
* '''Attack bombers:'''
** [[Westland Wyvern]]:
*** 813 Naval Air Squadron
* '''ASW/AEW aircraft:'''
** [[Fairey Gannet]]:
*** [[814 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** [[815 Naval Air Squadron]]
*** [[820 Naval Air Squadron]]
** [[List of A-1 Skyraider operators#Royal Navy|AD-4W Skyraider]]:
*** [[849 Naval Air Squadron|849 Naval Air Squadron 'A' Flight]]
*** [[849 Naval Air Squadron|849 Naval Air Squadron 'B' Flight]]
*** [[849 Naval Air Squadron|849 Naval Air Squadron 'D' Flight]]
* '''Helicopters:'''
** [[Westland Whirlwind (helicopter)|Westland Whirlwind:]]
*** [[845 Naval Air Squadron]]
|}

=====Aircraft losses=====
* '''24 September 1957''' – An [[F4D Skyray|F4D Skyray jet figher]] crashed into the sea while attempting to land back onboard the {{USS|Saratoga|CV-60|6}}. During the subsequent [[search and rescue]], two [[S-2 Tracker|S2F-2 ASW aircraft]] of VS-36 off the {{USS|Essex|CV-9|6}} collided in mid-air and crashed into the sea. Two additional F4D Skyray aircraft crashed following a mid-air collision off [[Andøy]], [[Norway]]. The total loss of life was 11.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/Aircraft_by_Type/Skyray/douglas_skyray.htm |title=Loss and Ejections: F4D-1 Skyray |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=ejection-history.org |date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ussessexcv9.org/Sea |title=Sea Stories |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=USS ''Essex'' Association |date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/aircrew2.htm |title= |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work=United States Navy Crew Crashes While On NATO Maneuvers In The Atlantic 24 September 1957 |publisher=[[Arlington National Cemetery]] |date= }}</ref>

* '''26 September 1957''' – An [[A-3 Skywarrior|A3D-1 Skywarrior attack bomber]] crashed into the stern [[flight deck]] ramp while attempting to land onboard the {{USS|Forrestal|CV-59|6}}. The aircraft was lost at sea, but the three-man crew was recovered.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/naval-nuclear-accidents.pdf |title=A-3 Skywarrior aircraft lost with crew lists, p. 2 |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=[[Greenpeace]] |date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRep_Crews/A-3%20AccidentsPage2.html |title=A-3 Skywarrior aircraft lost with crew lists, p. 2 |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=A-3 Skywarrior Association |date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRepwithBuNo_full/HTML%20List%20of%20Accidents%20by%20BuNoPage2.html |title= |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work=Descriptive List of Accidents, p. 2 |publisher=A-3 Skywarrior Association |date= }}</ref>

====Surface warships====
{| width="100%">
|-
! colspan=3|
|-
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''Battleships:'''
* {{USS|Wisconsin|BB-64}}
* {{USS|Iowa|BB-61}}
'''Cruisers:'''
* {{USS|Canberra|CAG-2}}
* {{USS|Boston|CAG-1}}
* {{USS|Macon|CA-132}}
* {{USS|Albany|CA-123}}
* {{USS|Northampton|CLC-1}}
* {{HMS|Gambia|48}}
* {{warship|De Grasse|(C 610)}}
'''Destroyers:'''
* {{USS|Mitscher|DL-2}}
* {{USS|Willis A. Lee|DL-4}}
* {{USS|Decatur|DD-936}}
* {{USS|John Paul Jones|DD-932}}
* {{USS|Forrest Sherman|DD-931}}
* {{USS|O'Hare|DDR-889}}
* {{USS|Forrest Royal|DD-872}}
* {{USS|Charles R. Ware|DD-865}}
* {{USS|Harwood|DD-861}}
* {{USS|McCaffery|DDE-860}}
* {{USS|Charles H. Roan|DD-853}}
* {{USS|Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.|DD-850}}
* {{USS|Fiske|DDR-842}}
* {{USS|Robert A. Owens|DDE-827}}
* {{USS|Samuel B. Roberts|DD-823}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|
<br />
* {{USS|Johnston|DD-821}}
* {{USS|Corry|DD-817}}
* {{USS|Robert K. Huntington|DD-781}}
* {{USS|Stormes|DD-780}}
* {{USS|Douglas H. Fox|DD-779}}
* {{USS|Massey|DD-778}}
* {{USS|Zellars|DD-777}}
* {{USS|James C. Owens|DD-776}}
* {{USS|Lowry|DD-770}}
* {{USS|Putnam|DD-757}}
* {{USS|Laffey|DD-724}}
* {{USS|William R. Rush|DDR-714}}
* {{USS|Hugh Purvis|DD-709}}
* {{USS|Gainard|DD-706}}
* {{USS|Compton|DD-705}}
* {{USS|Ault|DD-698}}
* {{USS|Charles S. Sperry|DD-697}}
* {{USS|Ingraham|DD-694}}
* {{USS|Moale|DD-693}}
* {{USS|Allen M. Sumner|DD-692}}
* {{USS|Hunt|DD-674}}
* {{USS|Caperton|DD-650}}
* {{USS|Abbot|DD-629}}
* {{USS|Daly|DD-519}}
* {{USS|Eaton|DDE-510}}
* {{USS|Cony|DDE-508}}
* [[USS Beale (DD-471)|USS ''Beale'' (DDE-471)]]
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''Destroyer Escorts:'''
* {{USS|Joseph K. Taussig|DE-1030}}
* {{USS|Courtney|DE-1021}}
* {{USS|Hammerberg|DE-1015}}
* {{USS|Cromwell|DE-1014}}
* {{USS|Dealey|DE-1006}}
* {{USS|Snowden|DE-246}}
* {{USS|Peterson|DE-152}}
* {{USS|Huse|DE-145}}
'''Amphibious Vessels:'''
* {{USS|Mount McKinley|AGC-7}}
* {{USS|Washtenaw County|LST-1166}}
'''Royal Canadian Navy:'''
* {{HMCS|Iroquois|DDE 217}}
* {{HMCS|St. Laurent|DDE 205}}
* {{HMCS|Ottawa|DDE 229}}
* {{HMCS|Saguenay|DDE 206}}
* {{HMCS|Assiniboine|DDE 234}}
* {{HMCS|Haida|DDE 215}}
* {{HMCS|Micmac|DDE 214}}
* {{HMCS|Nootka|DDE 213}}
|}

====Submarine forces====
{| width="100%">
|-
! colspan=3|
|-
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''Nuclear Submarines:'''
* {{USS|Seawolf|SSN-575}}
* {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571}}
<br />
<br />
'''Support Vessels:'''
* {{USS|Fulton|AS-11}}
* {{USS|Papago|ATF-160}}
* {{USS|Luiseno|ATF-156}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''Diesel-Electric Submarines:'''
* {{USS|Darter|SS-576}}
* {{USS|Trigger|SS-564}}
* {{USS|Odax|SS-484}}
* {{USS|Runner|SS-476}}
* {{USS|Trumpetfish|SS-425}}
* {{USS|Quillback|SS-424}}
* {{USS|Torsk|SS-423}}
* {{USS|Piper|SS-409}}
* {{USS|Sea Poacher|SS-406}}
* {{USS|Sea Owl|SS-405}}
* {{USS|Jallao|SS-368}}
* {{USS|Halfbeak|SS-352}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|
<br />
* {{USS|Chopper|SS-342}}
* {{USS|Bergall|SS-320}}
* {{USS|Becuna|SS-319}}
* {{USS|Barbero|SSG-317}}
* {{USS|Redfin|SSR-272}}
* {{USS|Ray|SSR-271}}
* {{USS|Pompon|SSR-267}}
* {{USS|Croaker|SSK-246}}
* {{USS|Cavalla|SSK-244}}
* {{USS|Angler|SSK-240}}
* {{USS|Grouper|SSK-214}}
|}

====Naval auxiliaries====
{| width="100%">
|-
! colspan=3|
|-
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''Underway Replenishment Group (URG):'''
* {{USS|Suribachi|AE-21}} (flagship)
* {{USS|Shasta|AE-6}}
* {{USS|Denebola|AF-56}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|
<br />
* {{USS|Caloosahatchee|AO-98}}
* {{USS|Nantahala|AO-60}}
* {{USS|Kankakee|AO-39}}
* {{USS|Kennebec|AO-36}}
| width="33%" valign="top"|
'''Fleet Support: '''
* {{USS|Grand Canyon|AD-28}}
* {{USS|Cadmus|AR-14}}
|}

===Land-based ASW patrol aircraft===
====U.S. Navy Fleet Air Wing 3====
The United States Navy deployed two patrol squadron from its Fleet Air Wing 3 (FAW-3) to participate in Operation Strikeback:

* [[VP-8|Patrol Squadron 8 (VP-8)]] operated out of [[Naval Station Argentia|Argentia]], [[Newfoundland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/avh-vol2/chap3-2.pdf |title=Second VP-8 |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work=Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2, Chapter 3 |publisher=Naval Historcal Center |date= }}</ref>
* [[VP-10|Patrol Squadron 10 (VP-10)]] operated out of [[Naval Air Station Keflavik|Keflavik]], [[Iceland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/avh-vol2/chap3-3.pdf |title=Third VP-10 |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work=Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2, Chapter 3 |publisher=Naval Historcal Center |date= }}</ref>

Both squadrons flew [[P2V Neptune|Lockheed P2V-5F Neptune ASW patrol aircraft]].

====RAF Coastal Command====
The [[Royal Air Force]] assigned two squadrons from its [[RAF Coastal Command|Coastal Command]] to participate in Operation Strikeback:

* [[No. 204 Squadron RAF|No. 204 Squadron]] deployed to [[RAF Kinloss]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://users.bigpond.net.au/Shackleton/balkela.html |title=Ballykelly's Shackleton Era 1952-1971 |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work= |publisher= |date= }}</ref>
* [[No. 269 Squadron RAF|No. 269 Squadron]] deployed to [[Wick Airport|RAF Wick]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oca.269squadron.btinternet.co.uk/history/squadron_history/chronology/1952-1963.htm |title=History - No. 269 Squadron RAF |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work= |publisher= |date= }}</ref>

Both squadrons flew [[Avro Shackleton]] patrol bombers.

===U.S. Marine Corps units===
The following units of the [[United States Marine Corps]] participated in Operation Strikeback and Operation Deep Water in September 1957 are listed below.<ref>Ralph W. Donnelly, Gabrielle M. Nuefield, and Carolyn A. Tyson. ''A Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1947 – 1964'' Volume III, p. 35; [http://www.gonavy.jp/CV-CV39.html USS ''Tarawa'' - GoNavy]</ref>

====Operation Strikeback====
* Regimental Landing Team 8 (RLT-8)
* Battalion Landing Team 1/2 (1st Battalion, 2nd Marine Regiment)

====Operation Deep Water====
* Regimental Landing Team 6 (RLT-6)
** 3rd Battalion
** 2nd Amphibious Reconnaissance Company
* '''Embarked on board {{USS|Lake Champlain|CVS-39}}:'''
** [[VMFA-312|Marine Fighter Squadron 312 (VMF-312)]] — [[FJ Fury|North American FJ-3/3M Fury]]
** Marine Attack Squadron 324 (VMA-324) — [[A-1 Skyraider|Douglas AD-4B Skyraider]]
** [[VMFA(AW)-533|Marine Attack Squadron 533 (VMA-533)]] — [[F-9 Cougar|Grumman F9F-8 Cougar]]
** [[Marine Aircraft Group 26|Marine Aircraft Group 26 (MAG-26)]]
*** [[HMH-461|Marine Helicopter Transport Squadron (Medium) 461 {HMR(M)-461)]] — [[Sikorsky H-19|Sikorsky HRS-3]]
*** [[HMM-262|Marine Light Helicopter Squardon 262 (HMR(L)-262)]] — [[Sikorsky H-34|Sikorsky HR2S-1]]

===Port visits===
Following the conclusion of Operation Strikeback, NATO naval forces paid visits to the following European ports.<ref>[http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/index.html ''Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships''] - [[Naval Historical Center]]; [http://archive.thisisdorset.net/2007/10/5/129888.html "The day ''Nautilus'' came to Portland "] - [[Dorset Echo|''Dorset Echo'']]; [http://www.navy.forces.gc.ca/iroquois/about/ship_about_e.asp?category=49 A Brief History of HMCS ''Iroquois'' (Postwar)]</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" width=99%
! rowspan="1" width="20%" | Port-of-call
! colspan="6" align="center" | Ships
|-
! [[Amsterdam, Netherlands]]
! {{USS|Ingraham|DD-694|6}}, {{USS|Moale|DD-693|6}}, {{USS|Allen M. Sumner|DD-692|6}}
|-
! [[Belfast, Northern Ireland]]
! {{USS|Abbot|DD-629|6}}, {{USS|Courtney|DE-1021|6}}
|-
! [[Brest, France]]
! {{USS|Wisconsin|BB-64|6}}, {{USS|Dealey|DE-1006|6}}, {{USS|Hammerberg|DE-1015|6}}
|-
! [[Brussels]]
! {{USS|Intrepid|CV-11|6}}
|-
! [[Chatham, England]]
! {{USS|Abbot|DD-629|6}}
|-
! [[Cherbourg, France]]
! {{USS|Ault|DD-698|6}}, {{USS|Dealey|DE-1006|6}}
|-
! [[Clyde River|Clyde River, Scotland]]
! {{USS|Becuna|SS-319|6}}, {{USS|Croaker|SS-246|6}}, {{USS|Pompon|SS-267|6}}
|-
! [[Copenhagen, Denmark]]
! {{USS|Forrest Sherman|DD-931|6}}, {{USS|Charles H. Roan|DD-853|6}}
|-
! [[Dublin|Dublin, Ireland]]
! {{USS|Odax|SS-484|6}}
|-
! [[Dunkirk, France]]
! {{USS|Peterson|DE-152|6}}
|-
! [[Faslane, Scotland]]
! {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571|6}}
|-
! [[Isle of Portland]]
! {{USS|Trigger|SS-564|6}}, {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571|6}}, {{USS|Becuna|SS-319|6}}, {{USS|Croaker|SS-246|6}}, {{USS|Pompon|SS-267|6}}, {{HMCS|Iroquois|G89|6}}, {{HMCS|Ottawa|DDH 229|6}}, {{HMCS|Nootka|R96||6}}, {{USS|Grand Canyon|AD-28|6}}, {{USS|Papago|ATF-160|6}}, {{USS|Luiseno|ATF-156|6}}, {{USS|Fulton|AS-11|6}}, {{USS|Angler|SS-240|6}}, {{USS|Jallao|SS-368|6}}, {{USS|Sea Owl|SS-405|6}}, {{USS|Trumpetfish|SS-425|6}}, {{USS|Bergall|SS-320|6}}, {{USS|Chopper|SS-342|6}}, {{USS|Barbero|SS-317|6}}, {{USS|Cavalla|SS-244|6}}, {{USS|Croaker|SS-246|6}}, {{USS|Grouper|SS-214|6}}, {{USS|Piper|SS-409|6}}, {{USS|Pompon|SS-267|6}}, {{USS|Ray|SS-271|6}}, {{USS|Redfin|SS-272|6}}, {{USS|Runner|SS-476|6}}, {{USS|Torsk|SS-423|6}}, {{USS|Hammerberg|DE-1015|6}}
|-
! [[Le Havre|Le Havre, France]]
! {{USS|Peterson|DE-152|6}}, {{USS|Trigger|SS-564|6}}, {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571|6}}, {{USS|Becuna|SS-319|6}}, {{USS|Croaker|SS-246|6}}, {{USS|Pompon|SS-267|6}}
|-
! [[Largs|Largs, Scotland]]
! {{USS|Decatur|DD-936|6}}
|-
! [[Milford Haven, Wales]]
! {{USS|Hammerberg|DE-1015|6}}
|-
! [[Oslo, Norway]]
! {{USS|Intrepid|CV-11|6}}
|-
! [[Plymouth, England]]
! {{USS|Forrest Sherman|DD-931|6}}, {{USS|Charles H. Roan|DD-853|6}}, {{USS|Beale|DD-471|6}}, {{USS|Courtney|DE-1021|6}}, {{USS|Dealey|DE-1006|6}}, {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571|6}}
|-
! [[Rosyth, Scotland]]
! {{USS|Decatur|DD-936|6}}, {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571|6}}
|-
! [[Southampton, England]]
! {{USS|Forrestal|CV-59|6}}
|}

==Other NATO operations==
[[Image:NATO Operation Deep Water 1957.jpg|thumb|right|220px|NATO Operation Deep Water (1957)]]
In addition to Operation Strikeback, which concentrated on its eastern Atlantic/northern European flank, NATO also conducted two other major military exercises in September 1957.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html |title=Emergency Call |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] |date=September 30, 1957 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://aolsvc.timeforkids.kol.aol.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809962,00.html |title=All Ashore |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work= |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] |date=October 7, 1957 }}</ref>

===Operation Counter Punch===
This air-ground exercise involved the national air-defense systems of Britain, France, Belgium and The Netherlands on the NATO’s central European front, with [[Army General (France)|Général d'Armée]] [[Jean-Étienne Valluy]], [[French Army]], NATO's Commander-in-Chief [[Allied Forces Central Europe]] (CINCENT), in overall command.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html |title=Emergency Call |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] |date=September 30, 1957 }}</ref>

===Operation Deep Water===
This exercise involved protecting NATO’s southern European flank, specifically the [[Dardanelles]], from a Soviet invasion. Operation Deep Water culminated in the [[Amphibious warfare|landing]] of 8,000 U.S. Marines at [[Saros Gulf]] near [[Gallipoli]], [[Turkey]], from a 38-ship amphibious task force, with air support provided by aircraft carriers from the [[U.S. Sixth Fleet]]. This operation was under the command of [[Vice Admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] Charles R. Brown, [[USN]], NATO's Commander Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (COMSTRIKFORSOUTH). Operation Deepwater saw the 3rd Battalion, 6th Marines, become the first unit of the [[United States Marines Corps]] to participated in a [[Air assault|helicopter-borne vertical envelopment operation]] during an overseas deployment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html |title=Emergency Call |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work= |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] |date=September 30, 1957 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://aolsvc.timeforkids.kol.aol.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809962,00.html |title=All Ashore |accessdate=2008-09-03 |work= |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] |date=October 7, 1957 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Jones | first=William K. | coauthors= | year=1987 | month= | title=A Brief History of the 6th Marines | publisher=USMC Headquarters - Historical Division | location=Washington, DC | isbn=1900031000 (PCN) | pages=p. 130 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | Donnelly |first= Ralph W. |coauthors= Gabrielle M. Nuefield; Carolyn A. Tyson | year=1971 | month= | titleA Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1947 – 1964 Volume III | publisherUSMC Headquarters - Historical Division | location=Washington, DC | isbn=19000318200 (PCN) | pages=p. 35 }}</ref>

==Legacy==
[[Image:USS Nautilus SSN-571 - 0857177.jpg|thumb|right|USS ''Nautilus'']]
[[Image:USS Seawolf (SSN-575) underway 02.jpg|thumb|right|USS ''Seawolf'']]
[[Image:USS Wisconsin Operation Strikeback 1957.jpg|thumb|right|USS ''Wisconson'' getting underway for Operation Strikeback - 3 September 1957]]
[[Image:USN Photo - 1043094 - ASW Task Force ALFA 1959.jpg|thumb|right|U.S. Navy ASW Task Force Alfa (1959)]]

===SACLANT===
SACLANT [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[Jerauld Wright]], [[USN]], described Operation Strikeback as being “remarkably successful” while also noting “[that] there is considerable scarcity of both naval and air forces in the eastern Atlantic.”<ref>’’Warrior among Diplomats’’, p. 334</ref> Wright’s Eastern Atlantic allied commander, [[Vice Admiral#United Kingdom|Vice Admiral]] Sir John Eccles, [[Royal Navy|RN]], also noted:

: I am not in a position to criticize political decisions, but I say this as a professional man with over 40 years' experience — I cannot carry out my task as given to me at the moment without more forces. In recent years the submarine has, without any doubt at all, gone a very long way ahead of the devices with which we are presently equipped to sound and destroy it.<ref>[http://aolsvc.timeforkids.kol.aol.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809962,00.html “All Ashore”] - [[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] - Monday, October 7, 1957</ref>

Particularly significant was the performance of [[nuclear powered submarine|nuclear-powered submarines]] with the U.S. Navy's first two such vessels, the {{USS|Nautilus|SSN-571}} and {{USS|Seawolf|SSN-575}}, participating in Operation Strikeback. According to naval analyst-historian Norman Friedman, ''Nautilus'' "presented a greater threat than all 21 snorkle submarines combined" during Operation Strikeback, making 16 successful attacks against various naval formations while maintaining effective on-station tactical and high-speed pursuit capabilities. ''Nautilus'' cruised 3,384 nautical miles (6,267 km) with an average speed of 14.4 knots (26.7 km/h).<ref>Norman Friedman. ''U.S. Submarines Since 1945: An Illustrated Design History'' (Annapolis Maryland: Naval Instiute Press, 1994) p. 109</ref> In addition to the ''Nautilus'', the ''Seawolf'' departed [[Naval Submarine Base New London|New London]] on 3 September for Operation Strikeback. Before she surfaces off [[Naval Station Newport|Newport, Rhode Isand]], on 25 September, ''Seawolf'' had remained submerged for 16 days, cruising a total of 6,331 miles (10,189 km).

Recognizing the need to meet this [[Anti-submarine warfare|anti-submarines warfare (ASW)]] challenge, the following actions were taken:

* '''Task Force Alfa''' was created by the U.S. Navy to develop improved ASW tactics and technology by integrating carrier-based ASW aircraft, land-based patrol aircraft, refitted destroyers, and hunter-killer submarines.<ref>"The Unraveling and Revitalization of U.S. Navy Antisubmarine Warfare" by John R. Bendict. [[Naval War College Review|''Naval War College Review'']] (Spring 2005), p. 98; [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863701,00.html "The Goblin Killers"] - [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] - Monday, 1 September 1958; [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863224,00.html?iid=chix-sphere "Antisubmarine Boss"] - [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] - Monday, 7 April 1958</ref>
* '''NATO Undersea Research Centre''' was established by SACLANT on 2 May 1959 in [[La Spezia, Italy]], to serve as a clearinghouse for NATO's anti-submarine efforts.<ref>''Warrior among Diplomats'', p. 357; [http://www.nurc.nato.int/about/history.htm History] - [[NATO Undersea Research Centre]]</ref>

Operation Strikeback was the final deployment for the [[battleship]]s {{USS|Iowa|BB-61|2}} and {{USS|Wisconsin|BB-64|2}} until their re-activation in the 1980s as part of the [[600-ship Navy|600-ship program]] of the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan Administration]].

Finally, on the technical level, Operation Strikeback saw the first use of [[Single-sideband modulation|single sideband (SSB) voice communications]] for tactical operations by the [[United States Navy]],<ref>''Chronological History – U.S. Naval Communications'', p. 16</ref> and the {{HMS|Bulwark|R08|6}} was the first [[Royal Navy]] carrier to use a [[magnetic loop|magnetic loop communication system]].<ref>[http://www.fleetairarmarchive.net/Ships/Bulwark.html HMS ''Bulwark'' - Fleet Air Arm Archives]</ref>

===SACEUR===
SACEUR [[General (United States)|General]] [[Lauris Norstad]], [[USAF]], noting the numerical superiority of Soviet and [[Warsaw Pact]] forces over NATO ground forces, called for "about 30 divisions” to augment NATO’s central European front.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html "Emergency Call"] - [[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] - Monday, 30 September 1957</ref>

Also, Operation Counter Punch revealed deficiency regarding [[Integrated NATO Air Defense System|NATO's air defense systems]] as well as air force responsiveness to theoretical Soviet and Warsaw Pact ground advances.<ref> Igor Trauschweizer. “Creating Deterrence for Limited War: The U.S. Army and the Defense of West Germany, 1953-1982,” p. 189</ref>

===FALLEX===
To improve alliance military readiness and integration, NATO continued to hold annual alliance-wide military exercises each autumn (''FALLEX'') that was jointly planned and executed by SACEUR and SACLANT forces.<ref> John Clearwater. ''Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story of Canada's Cold War Arsenal'', p. 121</ref>

===600-ship Navy===
Carrier-based air strike operations in the Norwegian Sea pioneered by Operation Stikeback became the cornerstone of the forward defense of NATO's northern flank as set forth in the [[600-ship Navy]] [[maritime strategy]] championed by [[Secretary of the Navy]] [[John Lehman]] and [[Chief of Naval Operations]] [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[James D. Watkins]], [[USN]], during the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan Adinistration]], and as executed by such a major NATO naval exercises as ''Ocean Safari '85'' and ''Northern Wedding '86''.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFDF163DF930A15750C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all "Lehman's Sea-War Strategy Is Alive, but for How Long?"] by Bernard E. Trainor. [[New York Times|''New York Times'']]. 23 March 1987</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=January |month=1986 |title=Ocean Safari '85: Meeting the Threat in the North Atlantic |journal=[[All Hands|''All Hands'']] |volume= |issue=826 |pages=pp. 20 - 29 |id= |url=http://www.navy.mil/media/allhands/acrobat/ah198601.pdf |accessdate=2008-10-10 |quote= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Connors |first=Tracy |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1987 |month=January |title=Northern Wedding '86 |journal=[[All Hands|''All Hands'']] |volume= |issue=838 |pages=pp. 18 - 27 |id= |url=http://www.navy.mil/media/allhands/acrobat/ah198701.pdf |accessdate=2008-10-10 |quote= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1989/TOF.htm |title=The Situation In The Norwegian Sea Today |accessdate=2008-10-10 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last=Tangen |first=Odd F. |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year=1989 |month= |format= |work=CSC |publisher=[[Globalsecurity.org]] |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref>

In a 2008 article, retired General [[Bernard E. Trainor]], [[USMC]], noted the success of this maritime strategy that helped to end the [[Cold War]]:

{{Quote|By going on the immediate offensive in the high north and putting the Soviets on the defensive in their home waters, the Maritime Strategy not only served to defend [[Scandinavia]], but also served to mitigate the [[Sea lines of communication|SLOC]] problem. The likelihood of [[Exercise REFORGER|timely reinforcement]] of NATO from the United States was now more than a pious hope.}}

{{Quote|With the emergence of an [[Foreign policy of the Reagan administration#Cold War|offensive strategy]] in the 1980s, a change in mindset was energized by concurrent dramatic advances in American technology, especially in [[C4ISR]] and [[600-ship Navy#Ships and weapons systems deployed during the plan era|weapon systems]], that were rapidly offsetting Soviet numerical and material superiority in Europe. No lesser light than the [[Chief of the General Staff (Russia)#Chief of the General Staff of the Soviet Armed Forces|USSR Chief of the General Staff]], [[Marshal of the Soviet Union|Marshal]] [[Nikolai Ogarkov]] warned that American superiority was shifting the "correlation of forces" in NATO's favor. He called the phenomenon a "military technological revolution." By the end of the decade the military threat from the Soviet Union was consigned to the dust bin of history and with it, the Cold War.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Trainor |first=Bernard E. |authorlink=Bernard E. Trainor |coauthors= |year=2008 |month=February |title="Triumph in Strategic Thinking" |journal=[[United States Naval Institute|United States Naval Institute ''Proceedings'']] |volume=134 |issue=2 |pages= |id=p. 42 |url=http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/archive/story.asp?STORY_ID=1352 |accessdate= |quote= }}; For a brief overview on the Sovier concept of correlation of forces, see Major Richard E. Porter, USAF. [http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1977/mar-apr/porter.html "Correlation of Forces: Revolutionary Legacy"] ''Air University Review'', March-April 1977</ref>}}

The 1984 Maritime Strategy that provided the strategic rationale for the 600-ship Navy program would be superseded in 2007 by [[A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower|''A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower'']].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Allen |first=Thad |authorlink=Thad Allen |coauthors=[[James T. Conway|Conway, James T.]], [[Gary Roughead|Roughead, Gary]] |year=2007 |month=November |title="A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower |journal=[[United States Naval Institute|United States Naval Institute ''Proceedings'']] |volume=133 |issue=11 |pages=pp. 14 - 20 |id= |url=http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/archive/story.asp?STORY_ID=999 |accessdate=2008-10-10 |quote= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Lehman |first=John |authorlink=John Lehman |coauthors= |year=2007 |month=November |title=A Bravura Performance |journal=[[United States Naval Institute|United States Naval Institute ''Proceedings'']] |volume=133 |issue=11 |pages=pp. 22 - 24 |id= |url=http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/archive/story.asp?STORY_ID=1017 |accessdate=2008-10-10 |quote= }}</ref>

<gallery>
Image:USS America (CV-66) Norway Ocean Safari 85.jpg|{{USS|America|CV-66|6}} in Norwegian waters during NATO Exercise ''Ocean Safari '85''
Image:Launch.jpg|Launch of [[F-14 Tomcat]] during NATO Exercise ''Ocean Safari '85''
Image:USS Nimitz off Norway 1986.jpg|{{USS|Nimitz|CVN-68|6}} off Norway during NATO Exercise [[Northern Wedding|''Northern Wedding '86'']]
Image:Schleswig-Holstein (D-182) with USS Iowa (BB-61).jpg|FGS ''Schleswig-Holstein'' (D-182) and [[USS Iowa (BB-61)|USS ''Iowa'' (BB-61)]] during ''Northern Wedding '86''
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Cold War (1953–1962)]]
*[[Integrated NATO Air Defense System]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist}}
=== Sources ===
* {{cite book |last=Sturtivant |first=Ray |coauthors= Theo Ballance |title= ''The Squadrons of the Fleet Air Arm'' |publisher=Air Britain |year= 1994 |month= |isbn= ISBN 0-85130-223-8 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/index.html |title=''Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships'' |accessdate=2008-08-26 |publisher=Naval Historical Center }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol1.htm |title=''Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 1'' |accessdate=2008-08-26 |publisher=Naval Historical Center }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol2.htm |title=''Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2'' |accessdate=2008-08-26 |publisher=Naval Historical Center }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/ |title=DANFS Online|accessdate=2008-08-26 |publisher=www.hazegray.org}}
*{{cite web |url=http://intrepid-west.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=1 |title=The Intrepid from Day One |accessdate=2008-08-26 |last=Robeson |first=Paul |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=2004-11-08 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=intrepid-west.org }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ussessexcv9.org/Essex_History.htm |title=USS ''Essex'' Association |accessdate=2008-08-26 |year=1997-2008 |month= |format= |work= |publisher=USS ''Essex'' Association }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.chinfo.navy.mil <!--What part of this site?-->|title=U.S. Navy Ofice of Information |accessdate=2008-08-26 |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=United States Navy }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.destroyers.org |title=The National Association of Destroyer Veterans |accessdate=2008-08-26 |publisher=Tin Can Sailors }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/navy |title=U.S. Navy |accessdate=2008-08-26 |last=Pike |first=John |date=2000-2008 |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ussohare.com |title=USS O'Hare (DD-889) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |date=2008 |publisher=USS O'Hare, DD/DDR 889}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.harwood861.org |title=USS ''Harwood'' (DD-861) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |date=1997 |publisher=Bushnell & Associates }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.usscharleshroan.org |title=USS ''Charles H. Roan'' (DD-853) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |year=1999-2008 |publisher=USS ''Charles H. Roan'' (DD-861) Association }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.usscharlesrwaredd865.com/dd865history.htm |title=USS ''Charles R. Ware'' (DD-865) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |last=Dannenfeldt |first=Danny |date=2006 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ussfiske.org |title=USS ''Fiske'' (DDR-842) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |date=2008 |publisher=USS ''Fiske'' DD/DDR 842 Association, Inc.}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.samuelbroberts.org |title=USS Samuel B. Roberts (DD-823) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |publisher=''Samuel B Roberts'' (DD-823) Shipmates Association}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.multied.com/NAVY/destroyer/JohnstonIIdd821.html |title=USS Johnston (DD-821) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |date=2005 |publisher=Multieducator}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.uss-corry-dd817.org/History/history.php |title=Military History of the USS Corry |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=USS Corry DD/DDR 817 Association |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.destroyersonline.com/usndd/dd697/dd697ltr.htm |title=USS ''Charles S. Sperry'' DD 697 |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Destroyers OnLine |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.dd-692.com/mediterrc.htm |title=Northern Europe - September to October 1957 |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=U.S.S. ''Allen M. Sumner'' (DD-692) Official Home of the First in its Class
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.uss-trumpetfish-ss425.org/4.html |title=History - USS ''Trumpetfish'' (SS-425) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=USS ''Trumpetfish'' SS 425 Veterans Association Inc.|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/08319.htm |title=USS ''Becuna'' (SS-319) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Navsource.org |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.pownetwork.org/phonies/phonies312.htm |title=USS ''Cadmus'' |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author=Albert Nelson Cain |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.navy.forces.gc.ca/iroquois/about/ship_about_e.asp?category=49 |title=A Brief History of HMCS ''Iroquois'' (Postwar) |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Canadian Navy |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://archive.thisisdorset.net/2007/10/5/129888.html |title=The day Nautilus came to Portland |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=''Dorset Echo'' |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.gonavy.jp |title=Go Navy |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.wa3key.com/cvsdata.html#airgroup |title=USS ''Intrepid'' Service Data |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=wa3key |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.vpnavy.com/shipmates_de.html |title=VP Shipmate Directory |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author=Ronald G. Dejarnette |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=VPNavy.org |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/ |title=Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards |accessdate=2008-08-26 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=NavWeaps |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}

<!-- What makes this a reliable source? *{{cite web |url=http://navysite.de/ |title= |accessdate=26 |accessmonthday=August |accessdaymonth=2008 |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }} -->

===Bibliography===
{{DANFS}}

* {{cite journal |last= Baldwin |first= Hanson W. |authorlink= Hanson W. Baldwin |coauthors= |year= 1957 |month= 22 September |title= "100 Fighting Ships in Vast Exercise" |journal= [[New York Times|''New York Times'']] |volume= |issue= |pages= 9 |id= |url= http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40F16F83F5D157A93C0AB1782D85F438585F9 |accessdate= 2008-08-28 |quote= }}
* {{cite journal |last= Bendict |first= John R. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2005 |month= Spring |title= "The Unraveling and Revitalization of U.S. Navy Antisubmarine Warfare" |journal= Naval War College Review |volume= 58 |issue= 2 |pages= 92-120 |id= |url=http://www.jhuapl.edu/areas/warfare/papers/art4-sp05.pdf |accessdate=2008-08-28 |quote= }}
* {{cite book |last= Clearwater |first= John |coauthors= |title= Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story of Canada's Cold War Arsenal |publisher= Dundurn Press Ltd. |year= 1998 |month= September |isbn= 0-7869-1850-8 }}
* {{cite book |last= Donnelly |first= Ralph W. |coauthors= Gabrielle M. Nuefield; Carolyn A. Tyson |title= [http://www.usmc.mil/news/publications/Documents/A%20Chronology%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Marine%20Corps%201947-1964%20%20PCN%2019000318200.pdf A Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1947 – 1964 Volume III] |publisher= USMC Headquarters - Historical Division |year= 1971 |month= |isbn= 19000318200 (PCN) }}
*{{cite book |last= Friedman |first= Norman |coauthors= |title= ''U.S. Submarines Since 1945: An Illustrated Design History'' |publisher= [[United States Naval Institute|Naval Institute Press]] |year= 1994 |month= September |isbn= 1557502609 }}
*{{cite book |last= Jones |first= William K. |coauthors= |title= ''A Brief History of the 6th Marines'' |publisher= USMC Headquarters - Historical Division |year= 1987 |month= |isbn= 1900031000 (PCN) }}
* {{cite book |last= Key Jr. |first= David M. |coauthors= |title= ''Admiral Jerauld Wright: Warrior among Diplomats'' |publisher= Sunflower University Press |year= 2001 |month= |isbn= 0-89745-251-8 }}
* {{cite journal |last= Porter |first= Richard E. |authorlink= |coauthors= Major (USAF) |year= 1977 |month= March-April |title= Correlation of Forces: Revolutionary Legacy" |journal= [[Air University (United States)|''Air University Review'']] |volume= |issue= |pages= |id= |url= http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1977/mar-apr/porter.html |accessdate= 2008-08-28 |quote= }}
* {{cite book |last= Sturtivant |first= Ray |coauthors= Theo Ballance |title= ''The Squadrons of the Fleet Air Arm'', first edition |publisher= Air Britain |year= 1994 |month= |isbn= 0-85130-223-8 }}
* {{cite journal |last= Trainor |first= Bernard E. |authorlink= Bernard E. Trainor |coauthors= |year= 1987 |month= 23 March |title= "Lehman's Sea-War Strategy Is Alive, but for How Long?"|journal= New York Times |volume= |issue= |pages= |id= |url= http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFDF163DF930A15750C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |accessdate= |quote= }}
* {{cite journal |last= Trainor |first= Bernard E. |authorlink= Bernard E. Trainor |coauthors= |year= 2008 |month= February |title= "Triumph in Strategic Thinking" |journal= United States Naval Institute Proceedings |volume= 134 |issue= 2 |pages= |id= 40 – 42 |url= http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/archive/story.asp?STORY_ID=1352 |accessdate= 2008-08-29 |quote= }}
* {{cite web |url= https://drum.umd.edu/dspace/bitstream/1903/3390/1/umi-umd-3202.pdf |title= Creating Deterrence for Limited War: The U.S. Army and the Defense of West Germany, 1953-1982; PhD dissertation |accessdate= 2008-08-28 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= Trauschweizer |first= Igor Wolfgang |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= 2006 |month= |format= |work= |publisher= Department of History - [[University of Maryland, College Park]] |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
* {{cite book |last=Turner Publishing Company Staff |first= |coauthors=USS ''Wasp'' Veterans |title= U. S. S. Wasp CV 18 |publisher=Turner Publishing Company |year= 1999 |month= |isbn= 9781563114045 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.a3skywarrior.com A-3 Skywarrior Association:]
** [http://www.a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRep_Crews/A-3%20AccidentsPage2.html A-3 Skywarrior aircraft lost with crew lists, p. 2]
** [http://www.a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRepwithBuNo_full/HTML%20List%20of%20Accidents%20by%20BuNoPage2.html Descriptive List of Accidents, p. 2]
* [http://users.bigpond.net.au/Shackleton/balkela.html Ballykelly's Shackleton Era 1952-1971]
* [http://www.radioman.org/history.pdf ''Chronological History — U.S. Naval Communications'']
* [http://www.destroyers.org The National Association of Destroyer Veterans]
* [http://archive.thisisdorset.net/2007/10/5/129888.html “The day ''Nautilus'' came to Portland”] – [[Dorset Echo|''Dorset Echo'']]
* [http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/Aircraft_by_Type/Skyray/douglas_skyray.htm Loss and Ejections: F4D-1 Skyray] - [http://www.ejection-history.org.uk Project Get Out and Walk]
* [http://www.navy.forces.gc.ca/iroquois/about/ship_about_e.asp?category=49 HMCS ''Iroquois'']
* [http://www.fleetairarmarchive.net/Ships/Bulwark.html HMS ''Bulwark'' - Fleet Air Arm Archives]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/navy GlobalSecurity.org]
* [http://gonavy.jp/ Go Navy]
* [http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/naval-nuclear-accidents.pdf ''Neptune paper III: Naval nuclear accidentasat sea'' (1990)] - PDF format - [[Greenpeace International]]
* [http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/aircrew2.htm United States Navy Crew Crashes While On NATO Maneuvers In The Atlantic 24 September 1957 ] - [[Arlington National Cemetery]]
* [[Naval Historical Center|Naval Historical Center:]]
** [http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol1.htm ''Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 1 The History of VA, VAH, VAK, VAL, VAP and VFA Squadrons'']
** [http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol2.htm ''Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2 The History of VP, VPB, VP(H) and VP(AM) Squadrons'']
* [http://www.navsource.org/archives/02/11.htm#strike_back USS ''Intrepid'' — Operation Strikeback] — Navsource.org
* [[New York Times|''New York Times'':]]
**[[Hanson W. Baldwin]], [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40F16F83F5D157A93C0AB1782D85F438585F9 "100 Fighting Ships in Vast Exercise"] - 22 September 1957 (Sunday), page 3
** [[Bernard E. Trainor]], [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFDF163DF930A15750C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all "Lehman's Sea-War Strategy Is Alive, but for How Long?"] - 23 March 1987
* North Atlantic Treaty Organization
** [http://www.nato.int/cv/ace-k-p.pdf Senior officials in the NATO military structure, from 1949 to 2001]
** ''NATO the first five years 1949-1954'':
*** [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/3.htm Chapter 3 — The first steps - The military situation in May, 1950]
*** [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/5.htm Chapter 5 — Counting the cost]
*** [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/7.htm Chapter 7 — The Military Structure]
*** [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/9.htm Chapter 9 — The Increase in Strength - International Exercises]
*** [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/appendices/1.htm Appendix 1 — Chronicle]
*** [http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/annexes/b5.htm Annex — Chapter IX-B: Soviet armed strength (as estimated in 1954)]
* [http://www.oca.269squadron.btinternet.co.uk/history/squadron_history/chronology/1952-1963.htm History, 1952 - 1963] - No. 269 Squadron RAF
* [http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/strategy/article-dulles-retaliation_1962-01-25.htm John Foster Dulles. "The Evolution of Foreign Policy." ''Department of State, Press Release'' No. 81 (12 January 1954)] — nuclearfiles.org
* [[Time (magazine)|''TIME'' magazine online archive:]]
** [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822470,00.html "Operation Mainbrace"] — Monday, 22 September 1952
** [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html "Emergency Call"] — Monday, 30 September 1957
** [http://aolsvc.timeforkids.kol.aol.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809962,00.html “All Ashore”] — Monday, October 7, 1957
** [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863224,00.html?iid=chix-sphere "Antisubmarine Boss"] — Monday, 7 April 1958
** [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863701,00.html "The Goblin Killers"] — Monday, 1 September 1958
* [[Bernard E. Trainor]], [[U.S. Marine Corps]] (Retired), [http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/archive/story.asp?STORY_ID=1352 "Triumph in Strategic Thinking"] by [[Lieutenant General (United States)|Lieutenant General]]. United States Naval Institute ''Proceedings'' Vol. 134, No. 2 (February 2008) p. 40 – 42
* [http://www.ussessexcv9.org/Sea_Stories.htm Sea Story] - USS ''Essex'' Association
* Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards:
** [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/6897 The Commonwealth Navies: NATO Operation Strikeback - 1957]
** [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/5748 The European Navies: Norwegian subs during the Cold War]
** [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/6896 The European Navies: NATO Operation Strikeback - 1957]
** [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/6895 The Royal Navy: NATO Operation Strikeback]
** [http://warships1discussionboards.yuku.com/topic/6894 The United States Navy: NATO Operation Strikeback - 1957]

{{portalpar|Cold War}}
{{portalpar|NATO}}

{{NATO}}
{{Cold War}}

[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:NATO]]
[[Category:NATO military exercises]]
[[Category:Military operations involving NATO]]

Revision as of 00:43, 13 October 2008

Operation Strikeback was a major naval exercise of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) that took place over a ten-day period in September 1957.

As part of a series of exercises to simulate an all-out Soviet attack on NATO, Operation Strikeback was tasked with two objectives. Its initial objective was the deployment of NATO's naval forces (designated the "Blue Fleet") against other NATO forces attempting to simulate an "enemy" navy that featured a large number of submarines (designated the "Orange Fleet"). Its other objective was to have the Blue Fleet execute carrier-based air strikes against "enemy" formations and emplacements along NATO's northern flank in Norway.

Operation Strikeback involved over 200 warships, 650 aircraft, and 75,000 personnel from the United States Navy, the United Kingdom's Royal Navy, the Royal Canadian Navy, the French Navy, the Royal Netherlands Navy, and the Royal Norwegian Navy. As the largest peacetime naval operation up to that time, military analyst Hanson W. Baldwin of the New York Times characterized Operation Strikeback as "constituting the strongest striking fleet assembled since World War II."[1]

Background

Strategic doctrine issues

United States Secretary of State John Foster Dulles with President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956

Faced the overwhelming numerical superiority of Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact military forces, NATO embraced the concept of the nuclear umbrella to protect Western Europe from a Soviet ground invasion.[2] This strategy was articulated in January 1954 by U.S. Army General and then-Supreme Allied Commander Europe Alfred Gruenther:

We have... an air-ground shield which, although still not strong enough, would force an enemy to concentrate prior to attack. In doing so, the concentrating force would be extremely vulnerable to losses from atomic weapon attacks... We can now use atomic weapons against an aggressor, delivered not only by long-range aircraft, but also by the use of shorter range planes, and by 280 mm. artillery... This air-ground team constitutes a very effective shield, and it would fight very well in case of attack.[3]

This strategic concept reflected the American strategy of massive retaliation of the Eisenhower administration as set forth by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles:

We need allies and collective security. Our purpose is to make these relations more effective, less costly. This can be done by placing more reliance on deterrent power and less dependence on local defensive power... Local defense will always be important. But there is no local defense which alone will contain the mighty landpower of the Communist world. Local defenses must be reinforced by the further deterrent of massive retaliatory power. A potential aggressor must know that he cannot always prescribe battle conditions that suit him.[4]

Previous NATO exercises

HMS Vanguard during NATO's Operation Mainbrace in 1952.

Starting in 1952, NATO undertook a number of a major military exercises to improve NATO's integration and effectiveness, including:

  • Mainbrace — NATO's first naval exercise
  • Mariner — Naval exercise involving convoy protection, naval control of shipping, and striking fleet operations in north Atlantic
  • Italic Weld — Combined air-naval-ground exercise in northern Italy involving the United States, Italy, Turkey, and Greece
  • Grand Repulse — Military exercise in Germany involving the British Army on the Rhine (BAOR), the Netherlands Corps and Allied Air Forces Central Europe (AAFCE).
  • Monte Carlo — Simulated atomic air-ground exercise involving the Central Army Group (CENTAG)
  • Weldfast — A combined amphibious landing exercise in the Mediterranean Sea involving British, Greek, Italian, Turkish, and U.S. naval forces

Operation Strikeback and the other concurrent NATO exercises held during the fall of 1957 would be the most ambitious military undertaking for the alliance to date, involving more than 250,000 men, 300 ships, and 1,500 aircraft operating from Norway to Turkey.[5][6][7][8]

NATO military command structure

NATO military command and areas of responsibilities (1954)
File:NATO Allied Command Atlantic - July 1954.svg
SACLANT command structure (1954)
File:NATO Allied Command Europe - July 1954.svg
SACEUR command structure (1954)

With the establishment of NATO’s Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT) on 30 January 1952, the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT) joined the previously-created Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) as one of the alliance’s two principal military field commanders.[9] Also, a Channel Command was established on 21 February 1952 to control the English Channel and North Sea area and deny it to the enemy, protect the sea lanes of communication, and Support operations conducted by SACEUR and SACLANT.[10] The following key NATO military commands were involved in a series of alliance-wide exercises, including Operation Strikeback, during the Fall of 1957.[11][12]

Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT)

Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE)

Allied Channel Command (CHANCOM)

  • Commander-in-Chief Channel (CINCHAN) – Admiral Sir Guy Grantham, RN

Operational overview

The "GIUK Gap".

Scenario

As part of the response to a theoretical Soviet attack against NATO on all fronts, Operation Strikeback would test the capabilities of Allied naval forces (Blue Fleet) by tasking them to destroy the enemy navy (Orange Fleet) and its huge submarine fleet, protect transatlantic shipping, and undertake sustained carrier-based air strikes against the enemy positions.[13]

Operation Seaspray

Beginning on 3 September 1957, American and Canadian naval forces got underway to join British, French, Dutch, and Norwegian naval forces in eastern Atlantic and northern European waters under the overall command of Vice Admiral Robert B. Pirie, USN, the Commander of the U.S. Second Fleet, acting as NATO's Commander Striking Fleet Atlantic (COMSTRIKFLTLANT).[14] While en route, the U.S.-Canadian naval forces executed Operation Seaspray, a bilateral naval exercises to protect Blue Fleet’s vitally-important underway replenishment group (URG) from enemy submarine attacks.[15] The nuclear submarine Nautilus and the conventional submarine Trigger completed operations in the Arctic and joined 34 other U.S. and allied submarines temporarily assigned to the Orange Fleet.[16]

Operation Fend Off and Operation Fishplay

Operation Strikeback began on 19 September 1957, involving over 200 warships, 650 aircraft, and 65,000 personnel. To provide a more realistic simulation of protecting transatlantic shipping, over 200 merchant marine vessels, including the ocean liners Queen Mary and Ile de France, also participated as duly-flagged target ships for this NATO exercise.[17] Blue Fleet hunter-killer (HUK) groups centered around the carriers Essex, Wasp, and Tarawa, as well as submarines and land-based anti-submarine patrol aircraft, executed Operation Fend Off/Operation Fishplay to identify, track, and contain the breakout of the enemy Orange Fleet’s submarine force along the Greenland-Iceland-UK (GIUK) gap.[18][19]

Carrier-based air strike operations

Operating above the Arctic Circle in the Norwegian Sea, the Blue Fleet, which included the new U.S. supercarrier Saratoga and Forrestal, launched carried-based air strikes against enemy positions in Norway. Time magazine provided the following contemporary coverage of Operation Strikeback:

With that alert...simulated hell broke loose in the North Atlantic.

From somewhere southeast of Greenland came the crackle of an urgent radio message: "Being fired on by Orange surface raider Inchcliffe Castle."[20] With that alert from a famed but fictitious merchant vessel, simulated hell broke loose in the North Atlantic. Out to punish the "aggressors," a six-nation Blue fleet totaling nearly 160 fighting ships began steaming toward Norway. In the Iceland-Faeroes gap, 36 Orange submarines, including the atom-powered Nautilus, lay in wait. The U.S. destroyer Charles R. Ware was "sunk"; a "torpedo" slowed down the carrier U.S.S. Intrepid, and H.M.S. Ark Royal had a hot time beating off the assaults of Britain-based Valiant jet bombers. But by early afternoon, Blue carrier planes got through to make dummy atom attacks on Norway's ports, bridges and airfields. Into the midst of this earnest make-believe strayed a Russian trawler - a real one. The Russian, being overtaken, had the right of way and held it, passing diagonally through the entire NATO fleet as the big ships refueled and moved beyond her.[21]

Operation Pipedown

Following the conclusion of Operation Strikeback, U.S. naval forces conducted Operation Pipedown, involving the protection of its underway replenishment group while en route back the United States.[22]

Naval forces for Operation Strikeback

The following is a partial listing of naval forces known to have participated in Operation Strikeback based on public sources (e.g., Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships and on-line ship histories), contemporary and archival news accounts, and historical reference works as set forth here.[citation needed]

Aircraft carriers and embarked air groups

Naval aircraft

United States Navy:


Royal Navy:

Aircraft losses

Surface warships

Battleships:

Cruisers:

Destroyers:


Destroyer Escorts:

Amphibious Vessels:

Royal Canadian Navy:

Submarine forces

Nuclear Submarines:



Support Vessels:

Diesel-Electric Submarines:


Naval auxiliaries

Underway Replenishment Group (URG):


Fleet Support:

Land-based ASW patrol aircraft

U.S. Navy Fleet Air Wing 3

The United States Navy deployed two patrol squadron from its Fleet Air Wing 3 (FAW-3) to participate in Operation Strikeback:

Both squadrons flew Lockheed P2V-5F Neptune ASW patrol aircraft.

RAF Coastal Command

The Royal Air Force assigned two squadrons from its Coastal Command to participate in Operation Strikeback:

Both squadrons flew Avro Shackleton patrol bombers.

U.S. Marine Corps units

The following units of the United States Marine Corps participated in Operation Strikeback and Operation Deep Water in September 1957 are listed below.[33]

Operation Strikeback

  • Regimental Landing Team 8 (RLT-8)
  • Battalion Landing Team 1/2 (1st Battalion, 2nd Marine Regiment)

Operation Deep Water

Port visits

Following the conclusion of Operation Strikeback, NATO naval forces paid visits to the following European ports.[34]

Port-of-call Ships
Amsterdam, Netherlands USS Ingraham, USS Moale, USS Allen M. Sumner
Belfast, Northern Ireland USS Abbot, USS Courtney
Brest, France USS Wisconsin, USS Dealey, USS Hammerberg
Brussels USS Intrepid
Chatham, England USS Abbot
Cherbourg, France USS Ault, USS Dealey
Clyde River, Scotland USS Becuna, USS Croaker, USS Pompon
Copenhagen, Denmark USS Forrest Sherman, USS Charles H. Roan
Dublin, Ireland USS Odax
Dunkirk, France USS Peterson
Faslane, Scotland USS Nautilus
Isle of Portland USS Trigger, USS Nautilus, USS Becuna, USS Croaker, USS Pompon, HMCS Iroquois, HMCS Ottawa, HMCS Nootka (R96), USS Grand Canyon, USS Papago, USS Luiseno, USS Fulton, USS Angler, USS Jallao, USS Sea Owl, USS Trumpetfish, USS Bergall, USS Chopper, USS Barbero, USS Cavalla, USS Croaker, USS Grouper, USS Piper, USS Pompon, USS Ray, USS Redfin, USS Runner, USS Torsk, USS Hammerberg
Le Havre, France USS Peterson, USS Trigger, USS Nautilus, USS Becuna, USS Croaker, USS Pompon
Largs, Scotland USS Decatur
Milford Haven, Wales USS Hammerberg
Oslo, Norway USS Intrepid
Plymouth, England USS Forrest Sherman, USS Charles H. Roan, USS Beale, USS Courtney, USS Dealey, USS Nautilus
Rosyth, Scotland USS Decatur, USS Nautilus
Southampton, England USS Forrestal

Other NATO operations

File:NATO Operation Deep Water 1957.jpg
NATO Operation Deep Water (1957)

In addition to Operation Strikeback, which concentrated on its eastern Atlantic/northern European flank, NATO also conducted two other major military exercises in September 1957.[35][36]

Operation Counter Punch

This air-ground exercise involved the national air-defense systems of Britain, France, Belgium and The Netherlands on the NATO’s central European front, with Général d'Armée Jean-Étienne Valluy, French Army, NATO's Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces Central Europe (CINCENT), in overall command.[37]

Operation Deep Water

This exercise involved protecting NATO’s southern European flank, specifically the Dardanelles, from a Soviet invasion. Operation Deep Water culminated in the landing of 8,000 U.S. Marines at Saros Gulf near Gallipoli, Turkey, from a 38-ship amphibious task force, with air support provided by aircraft carriers from the U.S. Sixth Fleet. This operation was under the command of Vice Admiral Charles R. Brown, USN, NATO's Commander Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (COMSTRIKFORSOUTH). Operation Deepwater saw the 3rd Battalion, 6th Marines, become the first unit of the United States Marines Corps to participated in a helicopter-borne vertical envelopment operation during an overseas deployment.[38][39][40][41]

Legacy

File:USS Nautilus SSN-571 - 0857177.jpg
USS Nautilus
File:USS Seawolf (SSN-575) underway 02.jpg
USS Seawolf
File:USS Wisconsin Operation Strikeback 1957.jpg
USS Wisconson getting underway for Operation Strikeback - 3 September 1957
File:USN Photo - 1043094 - ASW Task Force ALFA 1959.jpg
U.S. Navy ASW Task Force Alfa (1959)

SACLANT

SACLANT Admiral Jerauld Wright, USN, described Operation Strikeback as being “remarkably successful” while also noting “[that] there is considerable scarcity of both naval and air forces in the eastern Atlantic.”[42] Wright’s Eastern Atlantic allied commander, Vice Admiral Sir John Eccles, RN, also noted:

I am not in a position to criticize political decisions, but I say this as a professional man with over 40 years' experience — I cannot carry out my task as given to me at the moment without more forces. In recent years the submarine has, without any doubt at all, gone a very long way ahead of the devices with which we are presently equipped to sound and destroy it.[43]

Particularly significant was the performance of nuclear-powered submarines with the U.S. Navy's first two such vessels, the USS Nautilus (SSN-571) and USS Seawolf (SSN-575), participating in Operation Strikeback. According to naval analyst-historian Norman Friedman, Nautilus "presented a greater threat than all 21 snorkle submarines combined" during Operation Strikeback, making 16 successful attacks against various naval formations while maintaining effective on-station tactical and high-speed pursuit capabilities. Nautilus cruised 3,384 nautical miles (6,267 km) with an average speed of 14.4 knots (26.7 km/h).[44] In addition to the Nautilus, the Seawolf departed New London on 3 September for Operation Strikeback. Before she surfaces off Newport, Rhode Isand, on 25 September, Seawolf had remained submerged for 16 days, cruising a total of 6,331 miles (10,189 km).

Recognizing the need to meet this anti-submarines warfare (ASW) challenge, the following actions were taken:

  • Task Force Alfa was created by the U.S. Navy to develop improved ASW tactics and technology by integrating carrier-based ASW aircraft, land-based patrol aircraft, refitted destroyers, and hunter-killer submarines.[45]
  • NATO Undersea Research Centre was established by SACLANT on 2 May 1959 in La Spezia, Italy, to serve as a clearinghouse for NATO's anti-submarine efforts.[46]

Operation Strikeback was the final deployment for the battleships Iowa and Wisconsin until their re-activation in the 1980s as part of the 600-ship program of the Reagan Administration.

Finally, on the technical level, Operation Strikeback saw the first use of single sideband (SSB) voice communications for tactical operations by the United States Navy,[47] and the HMS Bulwark was the first Royal Navy carrier to use a magnetic loop communication system.[48]

SACEUR

SACEUR General Lauris Norstad, USAF, noting the numerical superiority of Soviet and Warsaw Pact forces over NATO ground forces, called for "about 30 divisions” to augment NATO’s central European front.[49]

Also, Operation Counter Punch revealed deficiency regarding NATO's air defense systems as well as air force responsiveness to theoretical Soviet and Warsaw Pact ground advances.[50]

FALLEX

To improve alliance military readiness and integration, NATO continued to hold annual alliance-wide military exercises each autumn (FALLEX) that was jointly planned and executed by SACEUR and SACLANT forces.[51]

600-ship Navy

Carrier-based air strike operations in the Norwegian Sea pioneered by Operation Stikeback became the cornerstone of the forward defense of NATO's northern flank as set forth in the 600-ship Navy maritime strategy championed by Secretary of the Navy John Lehman and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral James D. Watkins, USN, during the Reagan Adinistration, and as executed by such a major NATO naval exercises as Ocean Safari '85 and Northern Wedding '86.[52][53][54][55]

In a 2008 article, retired General Bernard E. Trainor, USMC, noted the success of this maritime strategy that helped to end the Cold War:

By going on the immediate offensive in the high north and putting the Soviets on the defensive in their home waters, the Maritime Strategy not only served to defend Scandinavia, but also served to mitigate the SLOC problem. The likelihood of timely reinforcement of NATO from the United States was now more than a pious hope.

With the emergence of an offensive strategy in the 1980s, a change in mindset was energized by concurrent dramatic advances in American technology, especially in C4ISR and weapon systems, that were rapidly offsetting Soviet numerical and material superiority in Europe. No lesser light than the USSR Chief of the General Staff, Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov warned that American superiority was shifting the "correlation of forces" in NATO's favor. He called the phenomenon a "military technological revolution." By the end of the decade the military threat from the Soviet Union was consigned to the dust bin of history and with it, the Cold War.[56]

The 1984 Maritime Strategy that provided the strategic rationale for the 600-ship Navy program would be superseded in 2007 by A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower.[57][58]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Baldwin, Hanson W. (1957). ""100 Fighting Ships in Vast Exercise"". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-09-28. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ^ NATO the first 15 years, Chapter 3, Chapter 5, Chapter 7, Chapter 9 & Annex - Chapter IX-B, accessdate=2008-09-04
  3. ^ "Chapter 9". NATO the first 15 years. 2008-09-04. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
  4. ^ ""The Evolution of Foreign Policy"". Department of State, Press Release No. 81. 12 January 1954. Retrieved 2008-09-04. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, |accessmonthday=, and |coauthors= (help)
  5. ^ ""Operation Mainbrace"". TIME. Monday, 22 September 1952. Retrieved 2008-09-27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  6. ^ "Chapter 9 – The Increase in Strength - International Exercises". NATO the first five years 1949-1954. NATO. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
  7. ^ Key Jr., David M. (2001). Admiral Jerauld Wright: Warrior among Diplomats. Manhattan, Kansas: Sunflower University Press. pp. p. 333. ISBN 0-89745-25-8. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check |isbn= value: length (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  8. ^ ""Emergency Call"". TIME. Monday, 30 September 1957. Retrieved 2008-09-27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  9. ^ NATO The first 5 year, Chapter 7 - The Military Structure - Channel Committee and Channel Command
  10. ^ Chapter 7 - The Military Structure - Atlantic Command & Appendix 1 — Chronicle
  11. ^ "Who is who at NATO ?" (PDF). NATO. Retrieved 2008-10-03.
  12. ^ Key, Jr., David M. (2001). Admiral Jerauld Wright: Warior among Diplomats. Manhattan, Kansas: Sunflower University Press. pp. pp. 329 - 331, 334–335, 338–342, 357. ISBN 0-89745-251-8. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help), hereafter referred to as Warrior among Diplomats.
  13. ^ Warrior among Diplomats. p. 333 - 334
  14. ^ "[[USS Saratoga (CV-60)|USS Saratoga (CV-60)]]". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 2008-10-03. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  15. ^ USS Wasp, p. 119
  16. ^ ""The day Nautilus came to Portland"". Archive. Dorset Echo. October 5, 2007. Retrieved 2008-10-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  17. ^ {{cite web |url=http://archive.thisisdorset.net/2007/10/5/129888.html |title="The day Nautilus came to Portland" |accessdate=2008-10-03 |work=Archive |publisher=[[Dorset Echo|Dorset Echo |date=October 5, 2007 }}
  18. ^ Turner Publishing Company Staff (1999). U. S. S. Wasp CV 18. Nashville: Turner Publishing Company. pp. p. 118. ISBN 9781563114045. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), hereafter referred to as USS Wasp
  19. ^ "Norwegian subs during the Cold War". Warships1 and NavWeaps Discussion Boards. Retrieved 2008-10-03.
  20. ^ Inchcliffe Castle is a fictional ship from the Satevepost Glencannon stories by Guy Gilpatric.
  21. ^ "Emergency Call". TIME. Monday, 30 September 1957. Retrieved 2008-10-03. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  22. ^ USS Wasp, p. 119
  23. ^ "Loss and Ejections: F4D-1 Skyray". ejection-history.org. Retrieved 2008-10-03.
  24. ^ "Sea Stories". USS Essex Association. Retrieved 2008-10-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  25. ^ United States Navy Crew Crashes While On NATO Maneuvers In The Atlantic 24 September 1957. Arlington National Cemetery http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/aircrew2.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-03. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  26. ^ "A-3 Skywarrior aircraft lost with crew lists, p. 2" (PDF). Greenpeace. Retrieved 2008-10-03.
  27. ^ "A-3 Skywarrior aircraft lost with crew lists, p. 2". A-3 Skywarrior Association. Retrieved 2008-10-03.
  28. ^ Descriptive List of Accidents, p. 2. A-3 Skywarrior Association http://www.a3skywarrior.com/Memorial/AccRepwithBuNo_full/HTML%20List%20of%20Accidents%20by%20BuNoPage2.html. Retrieved 2008-09-03. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  29. ^ "Second VP-8" (PDF). Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2, Chapter 3. Naval Historcal Center. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
  30. ^ "Third VP-10" (PDF). Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Volume 2, Chapter 3. Naval Historcal Center. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
  31. ^ "Ballykelly's Shackleton Era 1952-1971". Retrieved 2008-09-03.
  32. ^ "History - No. 269 Squadron RAF". Retrieved 2008-09-03.
  33. ^ Ralph W. Donnelly, Gabrielle M. Nuefield, and Carolyn A. Tyson. A Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1947 – 1964 Volume III, p. 35; USS Tarawa - GoNavy
  34. ^ Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships - Naval Historical Center; "The day Nautilus came to Portland " - Dorset Echo; A Brief History of HMCS Iroquois (Postwar)
  35. ^ "Emergency Call". TIME. September 30, 1957. Retrieved 2008-10-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  36. ^ "All Ashore". TIME. October 7, 1957. Retrieved 2008-09-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  37. ^ "Emergency Call". TIME. September 30, 1957. Retrieved 2008-10-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  38. ^ "Emergency Call". TIME. September 30, 1957. Retrieved 2008-10-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  39. ^ "All Ashore". TIME. October 7, 1957. Retrieved 2008-09-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  40. ^ Jones, William K. (1987). A Brief History of the 6th Marines. Washington, DC: USMC Headquarters - Historical Division. pp. p. 130. ISBN 1900031000 (PCN). {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  41. ^ . Washington, DC. 1971. pp. p. 35. ISBN 19000318200 (PCN). {{cite book}}: |first= missing |last= (help); |pages= has extra text (help); Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Text "Donnelly" ignored (help); Text "publisherUSMC Headquarters - Historical Division" ignored (help); Text "titleA Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1947 – 1964 Volume III" ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  42. ^ ’’Warrior among Diplomats’’, p. 334
  43. ^ “All Ashore” - TIME - Monday, October 7, 1957
  44. ^ Norman Friedman. U.S. Submarines Since 1945: An Illustrated Design History (Annapolis Maryland: Naval Instiute Press, 1994) p. 109
  45. ^ "The Unraveling and Revitalization of U.S. Navy Antisubmarine Warfare" by John R. Bendict. Naval War College Review (Spring 2005), p. 98; "The Goblin Killers" - Time - Monday, 1 September 1958; "Antisubmarine Boss" - Time - Monday, 7 April 1958
  46. ^ Warrior among Diplomats, p. 357; History - NATO Undersea Research Centre
  47. ^ Chronological History – U.S. Naval Communications, p. 16
  48. ^ HMS Bulwark - Fleet Air Arm Archives
  49. ^ "Emergency Call" - TIME - Monday, 30 September 1957
  50. ^ Igor Trauschweizer. “Creating Deterrence for Limited War: The U.S. Army and the Defense of West Germany, 1953-1982,” p. 189
  51. ^ John Clearwater. Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story of Canada's Cold War Arsenal, p. 121
  52. ^ "Lehman's Sea-War Strategy Is Alive, but for How Long?" by Bernard E. Trainor. New York Times. 23 March 1987
  53. ^ "Ocean Safari '85: Meeting the Threat in the North Atlantic" (PDF). All Hands (826): pp. 20 - 29. January. Retrieved 2008-10-10. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  54. ^ Connors, Tracy (1987). "Northern Wedding '86" (PDF). All Hands (838): pp. 18 - 27. Retrieved 2008-10-10. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  55. ^ Tangen, Odd F. (1989). "The Situation In The Norwegian Sea Today". CSC. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2008-10-10. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, |accessmonthday=, and |coauthors= (help)
  56. ^ Trainor, Bernard E. (2008). ""Triumph in Strategic Thinking"". United States Naval Institute Proceedings. 134 (2). p. 42. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); For a brief overview on the Sovier concept of correlation of forces, see Major Richard E. Porter, USAF. "Correlation of Forces: Revolutionary Legacy" Air University Review, March-April 1977
  57. ^ Allen, Thad (2007). ""A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower". United States Naval Institute Proceedings. 133 (11): pp. 14 - 20. Retrieved 2008-10-10. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  58. ^ Lehman, John (2007). "A Bravura Performance". United States Naval Institute Proceedings. 133 (11): pp. 22 - 24. Retrieved 2008-10-10. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Sources


Bibliography

Public Domain This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships.

External links

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