Helium and Kutaisi: Difference between pages

Coordinates: 42°15′N 42°42′E / 42.250°N 42.700°E / 42.250; 42.700
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{{Infobox Settlement
<!--NB: THE DATES IN THE MAIN TEXT ARE NON-AUTOFORMATTED-->{{otheruses}}
|official_name = Kutaisi <br /> ქუთაისი
{{Infobox helium}}
|name_local = ქუთაისი
|image_skyline = Catholic Church in Kutaisi.jpg
|imagesize = 250px
|image_flag = Flag of Kutaisi, Georgia.svg|250px
|image_seal = Kutaisis Gerbi.jpg
|pushpin_map = Georgia (country)
|mapsize = 280px
|map_caption = Location of Kutaisi in Georgia
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]
|subdivision_name = {{GEO}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[Mkhare]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Imereti]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Nugzar Shamugia]]
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 70
|area_land_km2 =
|area_water_km2 =
|population_as_of = 2002
|population_footnotes =
|population_total = 185,965
|population_density_km2 =
|timezone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]
|utc_offset = +4
|timezone_DST = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]
|utc_offset_DST = +5
|latd=42 |latm=15 |lats=0 |latNS=N
|longd=42 |longm=42 |longs=0 |longEW=E
|elevation_m =
|website = [http://kutaisi.gov.ge/ kutaisi.gov.ge]
|footnotes =


}}
'''Helium''' ('''He''') is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, [[inert]] [[monatomic]] [[chemical element]] that heads the [[noble gas]] group in the [[periodic table]] and whose [[atomic number]] is 2. Its [[boiling point|boiling]] and [[melting point|melting]] points are the lowest among the elements and it exists only as a [[gas]] except in extreme conditions.
'''Kutaisi''' ({{lang-ka|ქუთაისი}}; ancient names: ''Aea''/''Aia'', ''Kutatisi'', ''Kutaïssi'') is [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]'s second largest city and the capital of the western region of [[Imereti]]. It is 221 km to the west of [[Tbilisi]].


==Geography==
HELUIM SUCKS AS AN ELEMENT IT CAN KILL YOU IF YOU INHAIL IT, ALTHOUGH IT MAKES YOUR VOICE SOUND FUNNY IT CAN KILL YOU!
Kutaisi is located along both banks of the [[Rioni River]]. The city lies at an elevation of 125-300 meters (410-984 feet) above sea level. To the east and north-east, Kutaisi is bounded by the Northern [[Imereti]] Foothills, to the north by the [[Samgurali Range]], and to the west and the south by the [[Colchis Plain]].


===Climate===
Helium is the second lightest element and is the second most [[chemical abundance|abundant]] in the observable Universe. Most helium was formed during the [[Big Bang]], but new helium is being created as a result of the [[nuclear fusion]] of hydrogen in [[star]]s. On Earth, helium is relatively rare and is created by the natural [[radioactive decay]] of some elements, as [[alpha particle]]s that are emitted consist of helium [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]]. This radiogenic helium is trapped with [[natural gas]] in concentrations up to seven percent by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature separation process called [[fractional distillation]].
The climate in Kutaisi is humid subtropical with a well-defined on-shore/monsoonal flow (characteristic of the [[Colchis]] Plain) during the Autumn and Winter months. The summers are generally hot and relatively dry while the winters are wet and cool. Average annual temperature in the city is 14.5 degrees Celsius. January is the coldest month with an average temperature of 5.2 degrees Celsius while July is the hottest month with an average temperature of 23.2 degrees Celsius. The absolute minimum recorded temperature is -17 degrees Celsius and the absolute maximum is 44 degrees Celsius. Average annual precipitation is around 1530mm (60.2 inches). Rain may fall in every season of the year. The city often experiences heavy, wet snowfall (snowfall of 30cm/12 inches or more per single snowstorm is not uncommon) in the winter, but the snow cover usually does not last for more than a week. Kutaisi experiences powerful easterly winds in the summer which descend from the nearby mountains.

===Landscape===
Kutaisi is surrounded by deciduous forests to the northeast and the northwest. The low-lying outskirts of the city have a largely agricultural landscape. Because of the many gardens in the city centre and the high leafy trees alongside the sidewalks of its streets and boulevards, Kutaisi is painted in bright green in the spring and in yellow-red in the autumn. In the springtime, when the snow starts to melt in the nearby mountains, the storming [[Rioni River]] in the middle of the city is heard far beyond its banks.


==History==
==History==
[[Image:Kutaisi, 1870s.png|thumb|250px|right|Kutaisi in 1870]]
===Scientific discoveries===
Kutaisi was the capital of the ancient Kingdom of [[Colchis]]. Archeological evidence indicates that the city functioned as the capital of the kingdom of [[Colchis]] as early as the [[second millennium BC]]. It is widely believed by [[historians]] that when [[Apollonius Rhodius]] was writing about [[Jason and the Argonauts]] and their legendary journey to [[Colchis]], Kutaisi/Aia was the final destination of the [[Argonauts]] and the residence of King [[Aeëtes]]. In [[975]]-[[1122]] Kutaisi was the capital of the united [[Kingdom of Georgia]], and in the [[15th century]]-[[1810]] the capital of the Imeretian Kingdom. In [[1810]] the Imeretian Kingdom was occupied by Tsarist [[Russia]]. Before Georgia's independence in [[1991]], followed by the country's economic collapse, Kutaisi was a major industrial center. Today, many inhabitants of the city have had to leave and work abroad. Small-scale trade prevails among the rest of the population.
The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868 as a bright yellow line with a [[wavelength]] of 587.49&nbsp;nanometers in the [[Emission spectrum|spectrum]] of the [[chromosphere]] of the [[Sun]]. The line was detected by French astronomer [[Pierre Janssen]] during a total [[solar eclipse]] in [[Guntur]], [[India]].<ref name=frnch>{{cite journal | title = French astronomers in India during the 17th - 19th centuries |journal = Journal of the British Astronomical Association | volume =101 | issue = 2 | pages = pp. 95&ndash;100 | url = http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1991JBAA..101...95K/0000100.000.html | author = Kochhar, R. K. |accessdate=2008-07-27|year=1991}}</ref><ref name="nbb"/> This line was initially assumed to be [[sodium]]. On October 20 of the same year, English astronomer [[Norman Lockyer]] observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum, which he named the D<sub>3</sub> [[Fraunhofer line]] because it was near the known D<sub>1</sub> and D<sub>2</sub> lines of sodium.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', p. 256</ref> He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer and English chemist [[Edward Frankland]] named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (''[[helios]]'').<ref>{{cite web| title=Helium | publisher = Oxford English Dictionary| year = 2008| url = http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50104457?| accessdate = 2008-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Thomson, W.|year=1872|publisher=Rep. Brit. Assoc. xcix|title=Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium.}}</ref>


==Education and Science==
On March 26, 1895 British chemist [[William Ramsay|Sir William Ramsay]] isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineral [[cleveite]] (a variety of [[uraninite]] with at least 10% [[rare earth elements]]) with mineral [[acid]]s. Ramsay was looking for [[argon]] but, after separating [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]] from the gas liberated by [[sulfuric acid]], he noticed a bright yellow line that matched the D<sub>3</sub> line observed in the spectrum of the Sun.<ref name="Encyc 257">''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', p. 257</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = On a Gas Showing the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of D3 , One of the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note | author = [[William Ramsay|Ramsay, William]] | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London | volume = 58 | pages = pp. 65–67 | year = 1895 | doi = 10.1098/rspl.1895.0006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of Certain Minerals. Part I | author = Ramsay, William | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London | volume = 58 | pages = pp. 80–89 | year = 1895 | doi = 10.1098/rspl.1895.0010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of Certain Minerals. Part II-- | author = Ramsay, William | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London | volume = 59 | issue = | pages = pp. 325–330 | year = 1895 | doi = 10.1098/rspl.1895.0097}}</ref> These samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist [[William Crookes]]. It was independently isolated from cleveite the same year by chemists [[Per Teodor Cleve]] and [[Abraham Langlet]] in [[Uppsala, Sweden]], who collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its [[atomic weight]].<ref name="nbb"/><ref>{{de icon}} {{cite journal | title = Das Atomgewicht des Heliums | author = Langlet, N. A. | journal = Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = pp. 289&ndash;292 | year = 1895 | doi =10.1002/zaac.18950100130 | language= German}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| chapter= Bibliography of Helium Literature | author =Weaver, E.R.| title=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|year=1919}}</ref> Helium was also isolated by the American geochemist [[William Francis Hillebrand]] prior to Ramsay's discovery when he noticed unusual spectral lines while testing a sample of the mineral uraninite. Hillebrand, however, attributed the lines to nitrogen. His letter of congratulations to Ramsay offers an interesting case of discovery and near-discovery in science.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Pat Munday|Munday, Pat]]|year=1999|title=Biographical entry for W.F. Hillebrand (1853–1925), geochemist and US Bureau of Standards administrator in [[American National Biography]]|editor=John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes|volume=10-11|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages= pp. 808–9; pp. 227-8}} </ref>
Kutaisi is one of the most important educational and scientific centers in Georgia, hosting the [[Gelati Academy of Sciences]], established in the [[12th century]] by King [[David IV]]. Here is also one of the most important educational centers in modern Georgia, [http://www.atsu.edu.ge Ak'ak'i Ts'ereteli State University], established in 1930. Besides these two, there are many other universities, institutes, colleges and schools in Kutaisi.


==Culture==
In 1907, [[Ernest Rutherford]] and Thomas Royds demonstrated that [[alpha particle]]s are helium [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] by allowing the particles to penetrate the thin glass wall of an evacuated tube, then creating a discharge in the tube to study the spectra of the new gas inside. In 1908, helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist [[Heike Kamerlingh Onnes]] by cooling the gas to less than one [[kelvin]].<ref>{{cite journal |title = Little cup of Helium, big Science |author = van Delft, Dirk |journal = Physics today |url = http://www-lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/cold/VanDelftHKO_PT.pdf |format=PDF|pages = pp. 36&ndash;42 |year = 2008 |accessdate = 2008-07-20}}</ref> He tried to solidify it by further reducing the temperature but failed because helium does not have a [[triple point]] temperature at which the solid, liquid, and gas phases are at equilibrium. Onnes' student [[Willem Hendrik Keesom]] was eventually able to solidify 1&nbsp;cm<sup>3</sup> of helium in 1926.<ref>{{cite news | title = Coldest Cold| publisher = Time Inc.| date = 1929-06-10| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,751945,00.html| accessdate = 2008-07-27}}</ref>
Kutaisi has an ancient cultural tradition. Here is a list of the cultural centers in Kutaisi.
[[Image:Bagrati cathedral, georgia.jpg|thumb|200px|The 11th-century [[Bagrati Cathedral]] a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]]]
[[Image:Kutaisi gelati.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Gelati Monastery]]/[[Academy]], a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]]]
'''Museums, Archive, Library, Gallery, Art Salon:'''
<br>1. [http://www.histmuseum.ge Kutaisi State Historical Museum]
<br>2. Kutaisi Museum of Sport
<br>3. Kutaisi Museum of Martial Art
<br>4. Museum of Zakaria Paliashvili
<br>5. Kutaisi State Historical Archive
<br>6. Kutaisi State Scientific-Universal Library
<br>7. David Kakabadze Fine Art Gallery
<br>8. Art Salon


'''Theatres, Cinema and Entertaining Center:'''
In 1938, Russian physicist [[Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa]] discovered that [[helium-4]] has almost no [[viscosity]] at temperatures near [[absolute zero]], a phenomenon now called [[superfluidity]].<ref>{{cite journal |title = Viscosity of Liquid Helium below the λ-Point |author = [[Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa|Kapitza, P.]] |journal = [[Nature]] |volume = 141 |pages = p. 74 |doi = 10.1038/141074a0 |year = 1938}}</ref> This phenomenon is related to [[Bose-Einstein condensation]]. In 1972, the same phenomenon was observed in [[helium-3]], but at temperatures much closer to absolute zero, by American physicists [[Douglas D. Osheroff]], [[David M. Lee]], and [[Robert Coleman Richardson|Robert C. Richardson]]. The phenomenon in helium-3 is thought to be related to pairing of helium-3 [[fermion]]s to make [[boson]]s, in analogy to [[Cooper pairs]] of electrons producing [[superconductivity]].<ref>{{cite journal |title = Evidence for a New Phase of Solid He<sup>3</sup> |author = Osheroff, D. D. |coauthors = R. C. Richardson, D. M. Lee |journal = Phys. Rev. Lett. |volume = 28 |issue = 14 |pages = pp. 885&ndash;888 |doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885 |year = 1972}}</ref>
<br>1. Kutaisi Lado Meskhishvili State Academic Theatre
<br>2. Kutaisi Meliton Balanchivadze State Opera House
<br>3. Kutaisi Iakob Gogebashvili State Puppet Theatre
<br>4. Cinema and Entertaining Center “Suliko”
<br>5. Hermann-Wedekind-Jugendtheater


'''Professional Unions and Public Organizations:'''
===Extraction and use===
<br>1. Georgian Writers’ Union
After an oil drilling operation in 1903 in [[Dexter, Kansas|Dexter]], [[Kansas]] produced a gas geyser that would not burn, Kansas state geologist [[Erasmus Haworth]] collected samples of the escaping gas and took them back to the [[University of Kansas]] at Lawrence where, with the help of chemists [[Hamilton Cady]] and David McFarland, he discovered that the gas consisted of, by volume, 72% [[nitrogen]], 15% [[methane]] (insufficient to make the gas [[combustible]]), 1% [[hydrogen]], and 12% an unidentifiable gas.<ref name="nbb"/><ref>{{cite journal |author = McFarland, D. F. |title = Composition of Gas from a Well at Dexter, Kan |volume = 19|issue = |pages = pp. 60&ndash;62 |url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/3624173 |year = 1903 |accessdate=2008-07-22 |journal = Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science |doi = 10.2307/3624173 }}</ref> With further analysis, Cady and McFarland discovered that 1.84% of the gas sample was helium.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[American Chemical Society]]|year=2004|url=http://acswebcontent.acs.org/landmarks/landmarks/helium/helium.html|title=The Discovery of Helium in Natural Gas|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author = Cady, H.P. |coauthors = D. F. McFarland |title = Helium in Natural Gas |journal = Science |volume = 14 |issue = |pages = p. 344 |doi = 10.1126/science.24.611.344 |year = 1906 |pmid = 17772798}}</ref> This showed that despite its overall rarity on Earth, helium was concentrated in large quantities under the [[American Great Plains]], available for extraction from natural gas.<ref>{{cite journal |author = Cady, H.P. |coauthors = D. F. McFarland |title = Helium in Kansas Natural Gas |journal = Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science |volume = 20 |issue = |pages = pp. 80–81 |url = http://mc1litvip.jstor.org/stable/3624645 |year = 1906|accessdate=2008-07-20 |doi = 10.2307/3624645 }}</ref>
<br>2. Georgian Painters’ Union
<br>3. Folk Palace


'''Media:'''
This put the United States in an excellent position to become the world's leading supplier of helium. Following a suggestion by Sir [[Richard Threlfall]], the [[United States Navy]] sponsored three small experimental helium production plants during [[World War I]]. The goal was to supply [[barrage balloon]]s with the non-flammable, lighter-than-air gas. A total of 200 thousand cubic feet (5,700&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>) of 92% helium was produced in the program even though only a few cubic feet (less than 100&nbsp;liters) of the gas had previously been obtained.<ref name="Encyc 257"/> Some of this gas was used in the world's first helium-filled [[airship]], the U.S. Navy's C-7, which flew its maiden voyage from [[Hampton Roads, Virginia|Hampton Roads]], [[Virginia]] to [[Bolling Field]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] on December 1, 1921.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Emme, Eugene M. comp. |title=Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Chronology of Science and Technology in the Exploration of Space, 1915&ndash;1960 |year=1961 |pages=pp. 11&ndash;19 |chapter=Aeronautics and Astronautics Chronology, 1920–1924 |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Timeline/1920-24.html |publisher=[[NASA]] |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate=2008-07-20 }}</ref>
<br>Local Newspapers: “Kutaisi”, “Imeretis Moabe”, “PS”, [http://www.akhali-gazeti.ge “Akhali Gazeti”], "Kutaisuri Versia", "Chveneburebi" (Journal); Scientific Journal “Gantiadi”.
<br>TV: "Rioni"; [http://www.radiodk.ge Radio: "Dzveli Kalaki" (old City)]


<br>Also all the republican newspapers, journals and television stations have their representatives in Kutaisi.
Although the extraction process, using low-temperature gas liquefaction, was not developed in time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a [[lifting gas]] in lighter-than-air craft. This use increased demand during World War II, as well as demands for shielded arc [[welding]]. The [[helium mass spectrometer]] was also vital in the atomic bomb [[Manhattan Project]].<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Leak Detection|author=Hilleret, N.|publisher=[[CERN]]|title=CERN Accelerator School, vacuum technology: proceedings: Scanticon Conference Centre, Snekersten, Denmark, 28 May &ndash; 3 June 1999 |editor=S. Turner |location=Geneva, Switzerland|url=http://doc.cern.ch/yellowrep/1999/99-05/p203.pdf |format=PDF| year=1999 |pages=pp. 203&ndash;212 |quote=At the origin of the helium leak detection method was the Manhattan Project and the unprecedented leak-tightness requirements needed by the uranium enrichment plants. The required sensitivity needed for the leak checking led to the choice of a mass spectrometer designed by Dr. A.O.C. Nier tuned on the helium mass.}}</ref>


==Sport==
The [[government of the United States]] set up the [[National Helium Reserve]] in 1925 at [[Amarillo, Texas|Amarillo]], [[Texas]] with the goal of supplying military [[airship]]s in time of war and commercial airships in peacetime.<ref name="ECE"/> Due to a US military embargo against Germany that restricted helium supplies, the [[LZ 129 Hindenburg|Hindenburg]] was forced to use hydrogen as the lift gas. Helium use following [[World War II]] was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure a supply of liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen/hydrogen [[rocket fuel]] (among other uses) during the [[Space Race]] and [[Cold War]]. Helium use in the United States in 1965 was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.<ref>{{cite journal| author = Williamson, John G.| title = Energy for Kansas| journal = Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science| volume = 71| issue = 4| pages = 432–438| publisher = Kansas Academy of Science| location = | date = Winter 1968| url = http://www.jstor.org/pss/3627447| accessdate = 2008-07-27}}</ref>
[[Image:RC AIA.png|thumb|150px|right|RC AIA Kutaisi]]
Kutaisi has a great tradition in sports, with many famous sport clubs. [[FC Torpedo Kutaisi]] has participated on the highest level of the [[Soviet Union]] [[Football (soccer)|football]] league. After Georgia achieved independence, it won many domestic and international titles. [[RC AIA Kutaisi]] won the Soviet Championship several times in [[Rugby football|Rugby]], and after independence, National Championships and Cups. Kutaisi also had an influential basketball club. Many famous Georgian athletes grew up here.
<br>
<br>
<br>


==Landmarks==
After the "Helium Acts Amendments of 1960" (Public Law 86–777), the [[United States Bureau of Mines|U.S. Bureau of Mines]] arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this ''helium conservation'' program, the Bureau built a 425&nbsp;mile (684&nbsp;km) pipeline from [[Bushton, Kansas|Bushton]], [[Kansas]] to connect those plants with the government's partially depleted Cliffside gas field, near Amarillo, Texas. This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside gas field until needed, when it then was further purified.<ref>{{cite journal | journal = Federal Register | date = [[2005-10-06]] | volume = 70 | issue = 193 | pages = p. 58464 | url = http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2005/pdf/05-20084.pdf | format=PDF| title = Conservation Helium Sale |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref>
The landmark of the city is the ruined [[Bagrati Cathedral]], built by [[Bagrat III]], king of Georgia, in the early [[11th century]]. The Bagrati Cathedral, and the [[Gelati Monastery]] a few km east of the city, are [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s. One of the famous churches in Georgia is [[Motsameta Church]]. It is named after two saints, brothers David and Constantine. They were the Dukes of Margveti, and were martyred by Arab invaders in the 8th century. Besides the churches, there are many interesesting places in Kutaisi, such as: [[Sataplia Cave]], where one can observe footprints of Dinosaurs; [[Geguti Palace]], which was one of the residences of Georgian monarchs; [["Okros Chardakhi"]] – Georgian Kings’ Palace; and the [[Temple|Pantheon]], where many notable citizens are buried.


==Famous people born in Kutaisi==
By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US$1.4&nbsp;billion in debt, prompting the [[Congress of the United States]] in 1996 to phase out the reserve.<ref name="nbb"/><ref name="stwertka">Stwertka, Albert (1998). ''Guide to the Elements: Revised Edition''. New York; Oxford University Press, p. 24. ISBN 0-19-512708-0</ref> The resulting "Helium Privatization Act of 1996"<ref>Helium Privatization Act of 1996 {{USPL|104|273}}</ref> (Public Law 104–273) directed the [[United States Department of the Interior]] to start liquidating the reserve by 2005.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309070384/html/index.html | title = Executive Summary |publisher = nap.edu |accessdate=2008-07-20 }}</ref>
*[[Aeëtes]] - King of kingdom of [[Colchis]]
*[[Bagrat III]] - King of united [[Kingdom of Georgia]] in 975-1014
*[[Giorgi I]] - King of united [[Kingdom of Georgia]] in 1014-1027
*[[Bagrat IV]] - King of united [[Kingdom of Georgia]] in 1027-1072
*[[Giorgi II]] - King of united [[Kingdom of Georgia]] in 1072-1089
*[[David IV]] - King of united [[Kingdom of Georgia]] in 1089-1125
*[[Revaz Gabriadze]] - Cinematografiste, Writer, Director, Production Designer
*[[Niko Nikoladze]] - Georgian Public Figure
*[[Zakaria Paliashvili]] - Georgian Composer
*[[Meliton Balanchivadze]] - Georgian Composer
*[[Veriko Anjaparidze]] - Georgian Actress
*[[Ak'ak'i Vasadze]] - Georgian Actor
*[[Iakob Nikoladze]] - Georgian Sculptor, the author of the previous state flag of Georgia.
*[[David Kakabadze]] - Georgian Painter
*[[Władysław Raczkiewicz]] (1885-1947) - First president of the [[Polish government-in-exile]], 1939-1947.
*[[Zurab Sakandelidze]] - Georgian basketball player, Olympic Champion
*[[Mikheil Korkiya]] - Georgian basketball player, Olympic Champion
*[[David Khakhaleishvili]] - Olympic Champion in Wrestling
*[[Teimuraz Apkhazava]] - World and European Champion in Wrestling
*[[Revaz Dzodzuashvili]] - Georgian football player, winner of the Bronze Medal of the World Cup 1966
*[[Otar Korkiya]] - Georgian basketball player, European Champions' Cup champion and Olympic silver medalist
*[[Katie Melua]] - singer
*[[Nino Burjanadze]] - Speaker of Georgian Parliament


==Sister cities==
Helium produced between 1930 and 1945 was about 98.3% pure (2% [[nitrogen]]), which was adequate for airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding use. By 1949, commercial quantities of Grade A 99.95% helium were available.<ref>{{cite book|publisher=Bureau of Mines / Minerals yearbook 1949|year=1951|author=Mullins, P.V. |coauthors = R. M. Goodling| title = Helium | pages = pp. 599&ndash;602 |url = http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/EcoNatRes/EcoNatRes-idx?type=div&did=ECONATRES.MINYB1949.PVMULLINS&isize=text|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref>
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;"


! bgcolor=#f9f9f9|City
For many years the United States produced over 90% of commercially usable helium in the world, while extraction plants in Canada, Poland, Russia, and other nations produced the remainder. In the mid-1990s, a new plant in [[Arzew]], [[Algeria]] producing 600 million cubic feet (1.7{{e|7}}&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>) began operation, with enough production to cover all of Europe's demand. Meanwhile, by 2000, the consumption of helium within the US had risen to above 15,000&nbsp;[[tonne|metric tons]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/helium-use.pdf|format=PDF| title= Helium End User Statistic | accessdate = 2008-07-12 | publisher = U.S. Geological Survey|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> In 2004–2006, two additional plants, one in Ras Laffen, [[Qatar]] and the other in [[Skikda]], Algeria were built, but as of early 2007, Ras Laffen is functioning at 50%, and Skikda has yet to start up. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium.<ref name=wwsupply>{{cite journal
! bgcolor=#f9f9f9|Country
|title=Challenges to the Worldwide Supply of Helium in the Next Decade |author=Smith, E.M.
|-
|coauthors=T.W. Goodwin, J. Schillinger |journal=Advances in Cryogenic Engineering |volume=49 A |issue=710 |pages=119&ndash;138
|'''[[Columbia, Missouri]]'''
|year=2003 |doi=10.1063/1.1774674 |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-07-20
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[United States]]
|url=https://www.airproducts.com/NR/rdonlyres/E44F8293-1CEE-4D80-86EA-F9815927BE7E/0/ChallengestoHeliumSupply111003.pdf
|-
}}</ref> Through this time, both helium consumption and the costs of producing helium increased.<ref name=Kaplan2007>{{Citation
|'''[[Newport]]'''
|last=Kaplan |first=Karen H. |date=June 2007 |title=Helium shortage hampers research and industry
|{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]]
|periodical=[[Physics Today]] |publisher=[[American Institute of Physics]]
|-
|volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=31&ndash;32 |accessdate=2008-07-20
|'''[[Vitoria-Gasteiz]]'''
|url=http://ptonline.aip.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_60/iss_6/31_1.shtml
|{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Spain]]
}}</ref> In the 2002 to 2007 period helium prices doubled,<ref name=Basu2007>{{Citation
|-
|last=Basu |first=Sourish |editor-last=Yam |editor-first=Philip
|'''[[Nikaia, Attica|Nikaia]]'''
|date=October 2007 |title=Updates: Into Thin Air |accessdate=2008-08-04
|{{flagicon|Greece}} [[Greece]]
|periodical=Scientific American |publisher=Scientific American, Inc. |volume=297 |issue=4 |pages=18
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|url=http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=E0D18FB2-3048-8A5E-104115527CB01ADB
|'''[[Tula, Russia|Tula]]'''
}}</ref> and during 2008 alone the major suppliers raised prices about 50%.{{Fact|date=August 2008}}
|{{flagicon|Russia}} [[Russia]]''

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==Characteristics==
|'''[[Plovdiv]]'''
===Gas and plasma phases===
|{{flagicon|Bulgaria}} [[Bulgaria]]

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Helium is the least reactive [[noble gas]] after [[neon]] and thus the second least reactive of all elements; it is [[inert]] and [[monatomic]] in all standard conditions. Due to helium's relatively low molar (atomic) mass, in the gas phase its [[thermal conductivity]], [[specific heat]], and [[Speed of sound|sound speed]] are all greater than any other gas except [[hydrogen]]. For similar reasons, and also due to the small size of helium atoms, helium's [[diffusion]] rate through solids is three times that of air and around 65% that of hydrogen.<ref name="Encyc 261">''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', p. 261</ref>
|'''[[Ashqelon]]'''

|{{flagicon|Israel}} [[Israel]]
Helium is less water [[solubility|soluble]] than any other gas known,<ref>{{cite journal|title = Solubility of helium and neon in water and seawater | author = Weiss, Ray F.| year = 1971| journal = J. Chem. Eng. Data | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = pp. 235&ndash;241 |doi = 10.1021/je60049a019 }}</ref> and helium's [[index of refraction]] is closer to unity than that of any other gas.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Using helium as a standard of refractive | author = Stone, Jack A. |coauthors = Alois Stejskal| year = 2004| journal = Metrologia | volume = 41 | pages = pp. 189&ndash;197 |doi =10.1088/0026-1394/41/3/012}}</ref> Helium has a negative [[Joule-Thomson coefficient]] at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its [[Joule-Thomson inversion temperature]] (of about 32 to 50&nbsp;K at 1&nbsp;atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion.<ref name="ECE"/> Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.
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[[Image:HeTube.jpg|thumb|left|Helium discharge tube shaped like the element's atomic symbol]]
|'''[[Rasht]]'''

|{{flagicon|Iran}} [[Iran]]
Most extraterrestrial helium is found in a [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] state, with properties quite different from those of atomic helium. In a plasma, helium's electrons are not bound to its nucleus, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the [[solar wind]] together with ionized hydrogen, the particles interact with the Earth's [[magnetosphere]] giving rise to [[Birkeland current]]s and the [[Aurora (phenomenon)|aurora]].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Helium isotopes in an aurora | author = Buhler, F. |coauthors = W. I. Axford, H. J. A. Chivers, K. Martin| year = 1976 | journal = J. Geophys. Res. | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = pp. 111&ndash;115|doi = 10.1029/JA081i001p00111}}</ref>
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|'''[[Samsun]]'''
===Solid and liquid phases===
|{{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Turkey]]
{{main|Liquid helium}}
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|'''[[Gyumri]]'''
Unlike any other element, helium will remain liquid down to [[absolute zero]] at normal pressures. This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics: specifically, the [[zero point energy]] of the system is too high to allow freezing. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1&ndash;1.5&nbsp;K (about &minus;272&nbsp;°C or &minus;457&nbsp;°F) and about 25&nbsp;bar (2.5&nbsp;MPa) of pressure.<ref>{{cite web |date = 2005-10-05 |url = http://www.phys.ualberta.ca/~therman/lowtemp/projects1.htm |title = Solid Helium |publisher = Department of Physics [[University of Alberta]]|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the [[refractive index]] of the two phases are nearly the same. The solid has a sharp [[melting point]] and has a [[crystal]]line structure, but it is highly [[Compressibility|compressible]]; applying pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30%.<ref name="LANL.gov">{{cite web |publisher = Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL.gov): |title = Periodic Table: Helium |url = http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/2.html |accessdate = 2008-07-23}}</ref> With a [[bulk modulus]] on the order of 5×10<sup>7</sup> [[Pascal (unit)|Pa]]<ref>{{cite journal |author = Malinowska-Adamska, C. |coauthors = P. Soma, J. Tomaszewski |title = Dynamic and thermodynamic properties of solid helium in the reduced all-neighbours approximation of the self-consistent phonon theory |journal = Physica status solidi (b) |volume = 240 |issue = 1 |pages = pp. 55&ndash;67 |doi = 10.1002/pssb.200301871 |year = 2003}}</ref> it is 50 times more compressible than water. Solid helium has a density of 0.214&nbsp;±&nbsp;0.006&nbsp;g/ml at 1.15&nbsp;K and 66&nbsp;atm; the projected density at 0&nbsp;K and 25&nbsp;bar is 0.187&nbsp;±&nbsp;0.009&nbsp;g/ml.<ref>{{cite journal |author = Henshaw, D. B. |title = Structure of Solid Helium by Neutron Diffraction |journal = Physical Review Letters |volume = 109 |issue = 2 |pages = pp. 328&ndash;330 |doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.109.328 |year = 1958}}</ref>
|{{flagicon|Armenia}} [[Armenia]]

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====Helium I state====
|'''[[Tianjin]]'''
Below its [[boiling point]] of 4.22&nbsp;Kelvin and above the [[lambda point]] of 2.1768&nbsp;kelvin, the [[isotope]] helium-4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state, called ''helium&nbsp;I''.<ref name="ECE"/><!-- page 262 & 263 --> Like other [[cryogenic]] liquids, helium&nbsp;I boils when it is heated and contracts when its temperature is lowered. Below the lambda point, however, helium doesn't boil, and it expands as the temperature is lowered further. <!-- clarifyme / The rate of expansion decreases below the lambda point until about 1&nbsp;K is reached; at which point expansion completely stops and helium&nbsp;I starts to contract again. / if it is below the lambda point, should not it be helium II?-->
|{{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} [[People's Republic of China]]

|-
Helium&nbsp;I has a gas-like [[index of refraction]] of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see that floats of [[styrofoam]] are often used to show where the surface is.<ref name="Encyc Chem Elem">''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', p. 262</ref> This colorless liquid has a very low [[viscosity]] and a density one-eighth that of water, which is only one-fourth the value expected from [[classical physics]].<ref name="Encyc Chem Elem"/> [[Quantum mechanics]] is needed to explain this property and thus both types of liquid helium are called ''quantum fluids'', meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion ([[thermal energy]]) from masking the atomic properties.<ref name="Encyc Chem Elem"/>
|'''[[Xinhua]]'''

|{{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} [[People's Republic of China]]
====Helium II state====
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Liquid helium below its lambda point begins to exhibit very unusual characteristics, in a state called ''helium&nbsp;II''. Boiling of helium&nbsp;II is not possible due to its high [[thermal conductivity]]; heat input instead causes [[evaporation]] of the liquid directly to gas. The isotope helium-3 also has a [[superfluid]] phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about such properties in the isotope helium-3.<ref name="ECE"/>
|'''[[Lyon]]'''
[[Image:helium-II-creep.svg|thumb|right|200px|Unlike ordinary liquids, helium&nbsp;II will creep along surfaces in order to reach an equal level; after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The [[Rollin film]] also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium&nbsp;II would creep out and escape.<ref name="ECE"/><!-- pg 263 -->]]
|{{flagicon|France}} [[France]]

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Helium&nbsp;II is a superfluid, a quantum-mechanical state of matter with strange properties. For example, when it flows through capillaries as thin as 10<sup>−7</sup> to 10<sup>−8</sup>&nbsp;m it has no measurable [[viscosity]].<ref name="nbb"/> However, when measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was observed. Current theory explains this using the ''two-fluid model'' for helium II. In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a [[ground state]], which are superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which behave more like an ordinary fluid.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1006/aphy.2000.6019 |title = Microscopic Theory of Superfluid Helium |journal = Annals of Physics |volume = 281 |issue = 1&ndash;2 |year = 2000 |month = October |pages = pp. 636&ndash;705 12091211 |author = Hohenberg, P. C.|coauthors = P. C. Martin}}</ref>
|'''[[Bayonne]]'''

|{{flagicon|France}} [[France]]''
Helium&nbsp;II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium&nbsp;II, the helium&nbsp;II moves along the surface, seemingly against the force of [[gravity]]. Helium&nbsp;II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30&nbsp;[[nanometre|nm]]-thick film regardless of surface material. This film is called a [[Rollin film]] and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, Bernard V. Rollin.<ref name="Encyc 263">''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', p. 263</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.76.1209 |title = Rollin Film Rates in Liquid Helium |journal = Physical Review |volume = 76 |issue = 8 |pages = pp. 1209&ndash;1211 |month = October | year = 1949 |author = Fairbank, H. A. |coauthors = C. T. Lane}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/S0031-8914(39)80013-1 |title = On the "film" phenomenon of liquid helium II |journal = Physica |volume = 6 |issue = 2 |year = 1949 |pages = pp. 219&ndash;230 |year = 1939 |author = Rollin, B. V. |coauthors = F. Simon}}</ref> As a result of this creeping behavior and helium&nbsp;II's ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium&nbsp;II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporate. Waves propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as [[gravity wave]]s in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the [[Van der Waals force]].<ref>{{cite web |author = Ellis, Fred M. |url = http://fellis.web.wesleyan.edu/research/thrdsnd.html |title = Third sound |publisher = Wesleyan Quantum Fluids Laboratory |month = September | year = 2005|accessdate = 2008-07-23}}</ref> These waves are known as ''third sound''.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.188.370 |title = Hydrodynamics and Third Sound in Thin He II Films |journal = Physical Review |volume = 188 |issue = 1 |year = 1969 |pages = pp. 370&ndash;384 |month = October | year = 1949 |author = Bergman, D.}}</ref>
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|'''[[Donetsk]]'''
In the ''fountain effect'', a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium&nbsp;II by a [[sintering|sintered]] disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium cannot pass. If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium. In order to maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid helium, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container.<ref>{{cite web |author=Warner, Brent|url=http://cryowwwebber.gsfc.nasa.gov/introduction/liquid_helium.html |title=Introduction to Liquid Helium |publisher=NASA|accessdate=2007-01-05 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050901062951/http://cryowwwebber.gsfc.nasa.gov/introduction/liquid_helium.html |archivedate=2005-09-01}}</ref>
|{{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Ukraine]]''

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The thermal conductivity of helium&nbsp;II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that of helium&nbsp;I and several hundred times that of [[copper]].<ref name="ECE"/><!-- pg 263 --> This is because heat conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum-mechanical mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a [[valence band]] of free electrons which serve to transfer the heat. Helium&nbsp;II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The [[heat transfer|flow of heat]] is governed by equations that are similar to the [[wave equation]] used to characterize sound propagation in air. When heat is introduced, it moves at 20&nbsp;meters per second at 1.8&nbsp;K through helium&nbsp;II as waves in a phenomenon known as ''[[second sound]]''.<ref name="Encyc 263"/>
|'''[[Kharkiv]]'''

|{{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Ukraine]]''
==Isotopes==
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{{main|Isotopes of helium}}
|'''[[Lviv]]'''
There are eight known [[isotope]]s of helium, but only [[helium-3]] and [[helium-4]] are [[stable isotope|stable]]. In the Earth's atmosphere, there is one He-3 atom for every million He-4 atoms.<ref name="nbb">{{cite book| author = Emsley, John| title = Nature's Building Blocks| publisher = Oxford University Press| year = 2001| location = Oxford| pages = pp. 175–179| isbn = 0-19-850341-5 }}</ref> Unlike most elements, helium's isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processes. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by [[alpha decay]] of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its [[nucleon]]s are arranged into [[shell model|complete shells]]. It was also formed in enormous quantities during [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]].<ref name=bigbang/>
|{{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Ukraine]]''

|}
Helium-3 is present on Earth only in trace amounts; most of it since Earth's formation, though some falls to Earth trapped in [[cosmic dust]].<ref name="heliumfundamentals">{{cite web |url = http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html |title = Helium Fundamentals |author = Anderson, Don L. |coauthors = G. R. Foulger, Anders Meibom |date = 2006-09-02 |accessdate = 2008-07-20 |publisher = MantlePlumes.org}}</ref> Trace amounts are also produced by the [[beta decay]] of [[tritium]].<ref>{{cite journal | title= Half-Life of Tritium| journal=Physical Review | volume= 72| issue= | year= 1947| pages= pp. 972&ndash;972 | url=http://link.aps.org/abstract/PR/v72/p972/s2 |accessdate=2008-07-20 |author= Novick, Aaron| doi=10.1103/PhysRev.72.972.2}}</ref> Rocks from the Earth's crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten, and these ratios can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]].<ref name="heliumfundamentals"/> He-3 is much more abundant in stars, as a product of [[nuclear fusion]]. Thus in the [[interstellar medium]], the proportion of He-3 to He-4 is around 100 times higher than on Earth.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Isotopic Composition and Abundance of Interstellar Neutral Helium Based on Direct Measurements| journal=Astrophysics| volume=45| issue=2| month=April | year=2002| pages=pp. 131&ndash;142| url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/asys/2002/00000045/00000002/00378626 |accessdate=2008-07-20 |author=Zastenker G. N. |coauthors = E. Salerno, F. Buehler, P. Bochsler, M. Bassi, Y. N. Agafonov, N. A. Eismont, V. V. Khrapchenkov, H. Busemann| doi=10.1023/A:1016057812964}}</ref> Extraplanetary material, such as lunar and asteroid [[regolith]], have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by [[solar wind]]s. The [[Moon]]'s surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 0.01&nbsp;[[Parts per million|ppm]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/Research/he3_pubs.html | title = Lunar Mining of Helium-3 |date = 2007-10-19| accessdate = 2008-07-09| publisher = Fusion Technology Institute of the University of Wisconsin-Madison}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url= http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2007/pdf/2175.pdf | format=PDF| title = The estimation of helium-3 probable reserves in lunar regolith| author= Slyuta, E. N. |coauthors = A. M. Abdrakhimov, E. M. Galimov| work= Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII| year=2007|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986,<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.thespacereview.com/article/536/1 | title = A fascinating hour with Gerald Kulcinski | author=Hedman, Eric R. | date = 2006-01-16 | work = The Space Review|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> have proposed to explore the moon, mine lunar regolith and use the helium-3 for [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]].
{{Template:Cities and towns in Georgia (country)}}

{{commonscat|Kutaisi}}
Liquid helium-4 can be cooled to about 1&nbsp;kelvin using [[evaporative cooling]] in a [[1-K pot]]. Similar cooling of helium-3, which has a lower boiling point, can achieve about 0.2&nbsp;kelvin in a [[helium-3 refrigerator]]. Equal mixtures of liquid He-3 and He-4 below 0.8&nbsp;K separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different [[quantum statistics]]: helium-4 atoms are [[boson]]s while helium-3 atoms are [[fermion]]s).<ref name = "zxqubv">''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', p. 264</ref> [[Dilution refrigerator]]s use this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few millikelvins.

It is possible to produce [[exotic helium isotopes]], which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest-lived heavy helium isotope is helium-5 with a [[half-life]] of 7.6×10<sup>&minus;22</sup>&nbsp;seconds. Helium-6 decays by emitting a [[beta particle]] and has a half life of 0.8&nbsp;seconds. Helium-7 also emits a beta particle as well as a [[gamma ray]]. Helium-7 and helium-8 are created in certain [[nuclear reaction]]s.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', p. 260</ref> Helium-6 and helium-8 are known to exhibit a [[nuclear halo]]. Helium-2 (two protons, no neutrons) is a [[radioisotope]] that decays by [[proton emission]] into [[hydrogen-1|protium]], with a [[half-life]] of 3x10<sup>&minus;27</sup>&nbsp;seconds.<ref name = "zxqubv"/>

==Compounds==
{{seealso|Noble gas compound}}
Helium is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions due to its [[Valence (chemistry)|valence]] of zero.<ref name="LANL.gov" /> It is an electrical insulator unless [[ion]]ized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable [[energy level]]s that allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge with a [[voltage]] below its [[ionization potential]].<ref name="ECE"/> Helium can form unstable [[compound (chemistry)|compounds]], known as [[excimer]]s, with tungsten, iodine, fluorine, sulfur and phosphorus when it is subjected to an [[electric glow discharge]], through electron bombardment or is otherwise a [[Plasma physics|plasma]]. HeNe, HgHe<sub>10</sub>, WHe<sub>2</sub> and the molecular ions He<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>, He<sub>2</sub><sup>2+</sup>, [[Hydrohelium(1+) ion|HeH<sup>+</sup>]], and HeD<sup>+</sup> have been created this way.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Massenspektrographische Untersuchungen an Wasserstoff- und Heliumkanalstrahlen (H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>, H<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>, HeH<sup>+</sup>, HeD<sup>+</sup>, He<sup>-</sup>) |author = Hiby, Julius W. |journal = [[Annalen der Physik]] |volume = 426 |issue = 5 |pages = 473&ndash;487 |year = 1939 |doi = 10.1002/andp.19394260506 |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> This technique has also allowed the production of the neutral molecule He<sub>2</sub>, which has a large number of [[spectral band|band systems]], and HgHe, which is apparently only held together by polarization forces.<ref name="Encyc 261"/> Theoretically, other compounds may also be possible, such as helium fluorohydride (HHeF) which would be analogous to [[Argon fluorohydride|HArF]], discovered in 2000.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Prediction of a Metastable Helium Compound: HHeF |author = Ming Wah Wong |journal = [[Journal of the American Chemical Society]] |volume = 122 |issue = 26 |pages = pp. 6289&ndash;6290 |year = 2000 |doi = 10.1021/ja9938175}}</ref>

Helium has been put inside the hollow carbon cage molecules (the [[fullerene]]s) by heating under high pressure. The [[endohedral fullerene|endohedral fullerene molecules]] formed are stable up to high temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Stable Compounds of Helium and Neon: He@C<sub>60</sub> and Ne@C<sub>60</sub> |author = Saunders, Martin Hugo |coauthors = A. Jiménez-Vázquez, R. James Cross, Robert J. Poreda |journal = Science |volume = 259 |issue = 5100 |pages = 1428&ndash;1430 |year = 1993 |doi = 10.1126/science.259.5100.1428 |pmid = 17801275|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> If [[helium-3]] is used, it can be readily observed by helium [[nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy]].<ref>{{cite journal |title = Probing the interior of fullerenes by <sup>3</sup>He NMR spectroscopy of endohedral <sup>3</sup>He@C<sub>60</sub> and <sup>3</sup>He@C<sub>70</sub> |author = Saunders, M.|coauthors = H. A. Jiménez-Vázquez, R. J. Cross, S. Mroczkowski, D. I. Freedberg, F. A. L. Anet|journal = Nature |volume = 367 |issue = |pages = 256&ndash;258 |year = 1994 |doi = 10.1038/367256a0 |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> Many fullerenes containing helium-3 have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds.

==Occurrence and production==
===Natural abundance===
Helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe (after [[hydrogen]]), constituting 23% of the [[baryon]]ic mass of the Universe.<ref name="nbb"/> The vast majority of helium was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis from one to three minutes after the [[Big Bang]]. As such, measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models. In [[star]]s, it is formed by the [[nuclear fusion]] of hydrogen in [[proton-proton chain reaction]]s and the [[CNO cycle]], part of [[stellar nucleosynthesis]].<ref name=bigbang>{{cite web|author=Weiss, Achim|title=Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation|url=http://www.einstein-online.info/en/spotlights/BBN_obs/index.html|publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics]]|accessdate=2008-06-23}}; {{cite journal|author=Coc, A. |coauthors = et al.|title=Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements|journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=600|year=2004|pages=p. 544|doi=10.1086/380121}}</ref>

In the [[Earth's atmosphere]], the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Oliver, B. M. |coauthors = James G. Bradley, Harry Farrar IV |year=1984 |title= Helium concentration in the Earth's lower atmosphere |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |volume=48 |issue=9 |pages=pp. 1759&ndash;1767 |doi=10.1016/0016-7037(84)90030-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.srh.weather.gov/jetstream/atmos/atmos_intro.htm |title=The Atmosphere: Introduction |work=JetStream - Online School for Weather |publisher=[[National Weather Service]] |date = 2007-08-29 |accessdate = 2008-07-12}}</ref> The concentration is low and fairly constant despite the continuous production of new helium because most helium in the Earth's atmosphere [[atmospheric escape|escapes]] into space by several processes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lie-Svendsen, Ø. |coauthors = M. H. Rees |year=1996 |title=Helium escape from the terrestrial atmosphere: The ion outflow mechanism |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=101 |issue=A2 |pages=pp. 2435&ndash;2444 |doi=10.1029/95JA02208|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronomynotes.com/solarsys/s3.htm|chapter=Atmospheres|title=Nick Strobel's Astronomy Notes|year=2007|accessdate=2007-09-25|author=Strobel, Nick}}</ref> In the Earth's [[heterosphere]], a part of the upper atmosphere, helium and other lighter gases are the most abundant elements.

Nearly all helium on Earth is a result of [[radioactive decay]]. The [[decay product]] is primarily found in minerals of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]], including [[cleveite]]s, [[pitchblende]], [[carnotite]] and [[monazite]], because they emit [[alpha particle]]s, which consist of helium nuclei (He<sup>2+</sup>) to which electrons readily combine. In this way an estimated 3000&nbsp;tonnes of helium are generated per year throughout the [[lithosphere]].<ref name=cook>{{cite journal |author=Cook, Melvine A. |year=1957 |title=Where is the Earth's Radiogenic Helium? |journal= Nature |volume=179 |issue= |pages=p. 213 |doi=10.1038/179213a0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Aldrich, L. T. |coauthors = Alfred O. Nier |year=1948 |title=The Occurrence of He<sup>3</sup> in Natural Sources of Helium |journal = Phys. Rev. |volume=74 |issue= |pages= 1590&ndash;1594 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.74.1590|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Morrison, P. |coauthors = J. Pine |year=1955 |title= Radiogenic Origin of the Helium Isotopes in Rock |journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=pp. 71&ndash;92 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1955.tb35366.x}}</ref> In the Earth's crust, the concentration of helium is 8 parts per billion. In seawater, the concentration is only 4 parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral [[spring (hydrosphere)|springs]], volcanic gas, and meteoric iron. Because helium is trapped in a similar way by non-permeable layer of rock like [[natural gas]] the greatest concentrations on the planet are found in natural gas, from which most commercial helium is derived. The concentration varies in a broad range from a few ppm up to over 7% in a small gas field in [[San Juan County]], [[New Mexico]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zartman, R. E. |year=1961 |title= Helium Argon and Carbon in Natural Gases |journal = Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=pp. 277&ndash;306 |url=http://www.agu.org/journals/jz/v066/i001/JZ066i001p00277/|accessdate=2008-07-21 |doi=10.1029/JZ066i001p00277}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Broadhead, Ronald F. |year=2005 |title= Helium in New Mexico &ndash; geology distribution resource demand and exploration possibilities |journal = New Mexico Geology |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=pp. 93&ndash;101 |url=http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/27/n4/helium.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2008-07-21}}</ref>

===Modern extraction===
For large-scale use, helium is extracted by [[fractional distillation]] from natural gas, which contains up to 7% helium.<ref>{{cite web| author = Winter, Mark| title = Helium: the essentials| publisher = Univeristy of Sheffield | year = 2008| url = http://www.webelements.com/helium/| accessdate = 2008-07-14}}</ref> Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly [[nitrogen]] and [[methane]]). The resulting crude helium gas is purified by successive exposures to lowering temperatures, in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the gaseous mixture. [[Activated charcoal]] is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade-A helium.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', p. 258</ref> The principal impurity in Grade-A helium is [[neon]]. In a final production step, most of the helium that is produced is liquefied via a [[cryogenic]] process. This is necessary for applications requiring liquid helium and also allows helium suppliers to reduce the cost of long distance transportation, as the largest liquid helium containers have more than five times the capacity of the largest gaseous helium tube trailers.<ref name=wwsupply/><ref>{{cite conference| author = Z. Cai |coauthors = R. Clarke, N. Ward, W. J. Nuttall, B. A. Glowacki | title = Modelling Helium Markets| publisher = University of Cambridge| year = 2007| url = http://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/programmes/phd/downloads/conference_spring2007/papers/cai.pdf| format=PDF| accessdate = 2008-07-14}}</ref> In 2005, approximately one hundred and sixty million cubic meters of helium were extracted from natural gas or withdrawn from helium reserves, with approximately 83% from the United States, 11% from Algeria, and most of the remainder from Russia and Poland.<ref>{{cite conference| title = Helium| booktitle = Mineral Commodity Summaries| pages = pp. 78&ndash;79| publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| month = January | year = 2004| url = http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/helium/heliumcs04.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2008-07-14}}</ref> In the United States, most helium is extracted from natural gas in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.<ref name=wwsupply/> Diffusion of crude natural gas through special [[semipermeable membrane]]s and other barriers is another method to recover and purify helium.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Membrane technology — A new trend in industrial gas separation |author = Belyakov, V.P. |coauthors= S. G. Durgar'yan, B. A. Mirzoyan, et al. |journal = Chemical and Petroleum Engineering |volume = 17 |issue = 1 |pages = pp. 19&ndash;21 |year = 1981 |doi = 10.1007/BF01245721}}</ref>
Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of [[lithium]] or [[boron]] with high-velocity protons, but this is not an economically viable method of production.<ref>{{cite journal |title = A Photographic Investigation of the Transmutation of Lithium and Boron by Protons and of Lithium by Ions of the Heavy Isotope of Hydrogen |author = Dee, P. I. |coauthors = E. T. S. Walton |journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Society of London]] |volume = 141 |issue = 845 |pages = pp. 733&ndash;742 |year = 1933 |doi = 10.1098/rspa.1933.0151}}</ref>

==Applications==
Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its unique properties, such as its low [[boiling point]], low [[density]], low [[solubility]], high [[thermal conductivity]], or [[inert]]ness. Helium is commercially available in either liquid or gaseous form. As a liquid, it can be supplied in small containers called [[Dewar flask|Dewars]] which hold up to 1,000&nbsp;liters of helium, or in large ISO containers which have nominal capacities as large as 11,000&nbsp;gallons (41,637&nbsp;liters). In gaseous form, small quantities of helium are supplied in high pressure cylinders holding up to 300 standard cubic feet, while large quantities of high pressure gas are supplied in tube trailers which have capacities of up to 180,000 standard cubic feet.

[[Image:Goodyear-blimp.jpg|thumb|left|Because of its low density and incombustibility, helium is the gas of choice to fill airships such as the [[Goodyear blimp]].]]
; Airships, balloons and rocketry
Because it is [[lighter than air]], [[airship]]s and balloons are inflated with helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is approximately 7% more buoyant, helium has the advantage of being non-flammable.<ref name="stwertka"/> In [[rocketry]], helium is used as an [[ullage motor|ullage]] medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make [[rocket fuel]]. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in [[space vehicle]]s. For example, the [[Saturn V]] booster used in the [[Apollo program]] needed about 13 million cubic feet (370,000&nbsp;m³) of helium to launch.<ref name="LANL.gov"/>

;Commercial and recreational
Helium alone is less dense than atmospheric air, so it will change the [[timbre]] (not [[Pitch (music)|pitch]]<ref name="Wolfe">{{cite web | url = http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/PHYSICS_!/SPEECH_HELIUM/speech.html | title = Physics in speech | publisher = phys.unsw.edu.au. |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref>) of a person's voice when inhaled. However, inhaling it from a typical commercial source, such as that used to fill balloons, can be dangerous due to the risk of [[asphyxiation]] from lack of oxygen, and the number of contaminants that may be present. These could include trace amounts of other gases, in addition to aerosolized lubricating oil.

For its low solubility in [[nervous tissue]], helium mixtures such as [[Trimix (breathing gas)|trimix]], [[heliox]] and [[heliair]] are used for [[deep diving]] to reduce the effects of [[Nitrogen narcosis|narcosis]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fowler |first=B |coauthors=Ackles KN, Porlier G |year=1985 |title=Effects of inert gas narcosis on behavior—a critical review |journal=Undersea Biomedical Research Journal |pmid=4082343 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/3019 |accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref><ref name=thomas>{{cite journal |author= Thomas, J. R. |year=1976 |title=Reversal of nitrogen narcosis in rats by helium pressure |journal=Undersea Biomed Res. |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=pp. 249–59 |pmid=969027 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2771 |accessdate=2008-08-06 }}</ref> At depths below {{convert|150|m|ft}} small amounts of hydrogen are added to a helium-oxygen mixture to counter the effects of [[high pressure nervous syndrome]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rostain, J. C. |coauthors=M. C. Gardette-Chauffour, C. Lemaire, R. Naquet|title=Effects of a H<sub>2</sub>-He-O<sub>2</sub> mixture on the HPNS up to 450 msw |journal=Undersea Biomed. Res. |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=257–70 |year=1988 |issn=0093-5387 |oclc=2068005 |pmid=3212843 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2487 |accessdate=2008-06-24 }}</ref> At these depths the low density of helium is found to considerably reduce the effort of breathing.<ref>{{cite journal| author = Butcher, Scott J.| coauthors = Richard L. Jones, Jonathan R. Mayne, Timothy C. Hartley, Stewart R. Petersen| title = Impaired exercise ventilatory mechanics with the self-contained breathing apparatus are improved with heliox| journal = European Journal of Applied Physiology| volume = 101| issue = 6| pages = p. 659(11)| publisher = Springer| location = Netherlands| month = December | year = 2007| doi = 10.1007/s00421-007-0541-5 }}</ref>

[[Helium-neon laser]]s have various applications, including [[barcode reader]]s.<ref name="nbb"/>

;Industrial
For its inertness and high [[thermal conductivity]], neutron transparency, and because it does not form radioactive isotopes under reactor conditions, helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some gas-cooled [[nuclear reactors]].<ref name="nostrand"/> Helium is used as a [[shielding gas]] in [[arc welding]] processes on materials that are contaminated easily by air.<ref name="nbb"/>

Helium is used as a protective gas in growing [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] crystals, in [[titanium]] and [[zirconium]] production, and in [[gas chromatography]],<ref name="LANL.gov"/> because it is inert. This property also makes it useful in supersonic [[wind tunnel]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author = Beckwith, I.E. |coauthors = C. G. Miller III |title = Aerothermodynamics and Transition in High-Speed Wind Tunnels at Nasa Langley |journal = Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics |volume = 22 |pages = pp. 419&ndash;439 |year= 1990 |doi = 10.1146/annurev.fl.22.010190.002223 }}</ref>

Because it [[diffusion|diffuses]] through solids at three times the rate of air, helium is used as a tracer gas to detect leaks in high-vacuum equipment and high-pressure containers.<ref name="nostrand">{{cite encyclopedia| title = Helium| editor = Considine, Glenn D.| encyclopedia = Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Chemistry| pages = pp. 764–765| publisher = Wylie-Interscience| year = 2005| isbn = 0-471-61525-0}}</ref>

Helium, mixed with a heavier gas such as xenon, is useful for [[thermoacoustic refrigeration]] due to the resulting high [[heat capacity ratio]] and low [[Prandtl number]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Working gases in thermoacoustic engines |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |year=1999 |volume=105 |issue=5 |pages=pp. 2677&ndash;2684 |doi=10.1121/1.426884 | author = Belcher, James R. |coauthors = William V. Slaton, Richard Raspet, Henry E. Bass, Jay Lightfoot}}</ref> The inertness of helium has environmental advantages over conventional refrigeration systems which contribute to ozone depletion or global warming.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mending the Ozone Hole: Science, Technology, and Policy |author=Makhijani, Arjun |coauthors = Kevin Gurney |publisher=MIT Press |year=1995 |isbn=0262133083}}</ref>

[[Image:Modern 3T MRI.JPG|thumb|right|Liquid helium is used to cool the superconducting magnets in modern MRI scanners.]]
;Scientific
The use of helium reduces the distorting effects of temperature variations in the space between [[lens (optics)|lenses]] in some [[telescope]]s, due to its extremely low [[index of refraction]].<ref name="ECE"/><!-- pg 261 --> This method is especially used in solar telescopes where a vacuum tight telescope tube would be too heavy.<ref>{{cite journal |author = Jakobsson, H. |title = Simulations of the dynamics of the Large Earth-based Solar Telescope |journal = Astronomical & Astrophysical Transactions |volume = 13 |issue = 1 |pages = pp. 35&ndash;46 |year= 1997 |doi = 10.1080/10556799708208113}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1983ApOpt..22...10E&amp;db_key=AST | title = Tests of vacuum VS helium in a solar telescope | author = Engvold, O. |coauthors = R.B. Dunn, R. N. Smartt, W. C. Livingston| journal = Applied Optics | year = 1983 | pages = pp. 10&ndash;12 | volume = 22|accessdate=2008-07-27}}</ref>

The age of rocks and minerals that contain [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] can be estimated by measuring the level of helium with a process known as [[helium dating]].<ref name="nbb"/><ref name="ECE">{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements|author=Brandt, L. W.|publisher=Reinhold Book Corporation|location=New York|year=1968|pages=pp. 256–268|editor=Clifford A. Hampel|chapter=Helium|id=LCCN 68-29938}}</ref>

Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for [[superconductivity]], such as in [[superconducting magnet]]s for [[magnetic resonance imaging]]. The [[Large Hadron Collider]] at [[CERN]] uses 96&nbsp;tonnes of liquid helium to maintain the temperature at 1.9&nbsp;Kelvin.<ref name="CERN-LHC">{{cite web|url=http://visits.web.cern.ch/visits/guides/tools/presentation/LHC_booklet-2.pdf LHC Guide booklet|title=CERN - LHC: Facts and Figures|publisher=[[CERN]]|accessdate=2008-04-30}}</ref> Helium at low temperatures is also used in [[cryogenics]].

==Safety==
Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in human blood. If enough helium is inhaled that oxygen needed for normal [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]] is replaced [[asphyxia]] is possible. The safety issues for cryogenic helium are similar to those of [[liquid nitrogen]]. The deep temperatures can result in [[cold burn]]s and the liquid to gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure-relief devices are installed.

Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid helium due to the rapid and significant [[thermal expansion]] that occurs when helium gas at less than 10 K is warmed to [[room temperature]].<ref name="LANL.gov"/>

==Biological effects==
<div style="float: right; padding-left: 6px;">{{Listen|right|filename=Helium article read with helium.ogg|title=Effect of helium on a human voice|description=The effect of helium on a human voice|format=[[Ogg]]}}</div>
The voice of a person who has inhaled helium temporarily changes in timbre in a way that makes it sound high-pitched. The [[speed of sound]] in helium is nearly three times the speed of sound in air; because the [[fundamental frequency]] of a gas-filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled there is a corresponding increase in the [[resonant frequency|resonant frequencies]] of the [[vocal tract]].<ref name="nbb"/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Ackerman MJ, Maitland G |title=Calculation of the relative speed of sound in a gas mixture |journal=Undersea Biomed Res |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=305–10 |year=1975 |month=December |pmid=1226588 |doi= |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2738 |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> (The opposite effect, lowering frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense gas such as [[sulfur hexafluoride]].)

Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and so displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration.<ref name="nbb"/><ref name=Grass>{{de icon}} {{cite journal | title = Suicidal asphyxiation with helium: Report of three cases Suizid mit Helium Gas: Bericht über drei Fälle | journal = Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift| volume = 119 | issue =9&ndash;10 | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1007/s00508-007-0785-4 | author = Grassberger, Martin |coauthors = Astrid Krauskopf | pages = 323&ndash;325 |language=German & English}}</ref> Breathing pure helium continuously causes death by [[asphyxiation]] within minutes. Inhaling helium directly from pressurized cylinders is extremely dangerous, as the high flow rate can result in [[barotrauma]], fatally rupturing lung tissue.<ref name=Grass/><ref name=slate>{{cite news | author = Engber, Daniel| title = Stay Out of That Balloon! | publisher = Slate.com| date = 2006-06-13| url = http://www.slate.com/id/2143631/| accessdate = 2008-07-14}}</ref> However, death caused by helium is quite rare, with only two fatalities reported between 2000 and 2004 in the United States.<ref name=slate/>

At high pressures (more than about 20&nbsp;atm or two&nbsp;[[MPa]]), a mixture of helium and oxygen ([[heliox]]) can lead to [[high pressure nervous syndrome]], a sort of reverse-anesthetic effect; adding a small amount of nitrogen to the mixture can alleviate the problem.<!--<ref>{{cite web| last = Campbell| first = Ernest S.| title = High Pressure Nervous Syndrome| work = Physics and Problems With Gases | date = 2008-05-13| url = http://www.scuba-doc.com/HPNS.html| accessdate = 2008-07-16}}</ref>--><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rostain JC, Lemaire C, Gardette-Chauffour MC, Doucet J, Naquet R |title=Estimation of human susceptibility to the high-pressure nervous syndrome |journal=J Appl Physiol |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=1063–70 |year=1983 |month=April |pmid=6853282 |doi= |url=http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6853282 |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hunger Jr |first=W. L. |coauthors=P. B. Bennett. |title=The causes, mechanisms and prevention of the high pressure nervous syndrome |journal=Undersea Biomed. Res. |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–28 |date=1974 |issn=0093-5387 |oclc=2068005 |pmid=4619860 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2661 |accessdate=2008-08-09 }}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Colchis]]
* [[Abiogenic petroleum origin]]
*[[Imereti]]
* [[Helium-3 propulsion]]
*[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
* [[Leidenfrost effect]]
*[[History of Georgia (country)|History of Georgia]]
* [[Superfluid]]
*[[Culture of Georgia]]
* [[Tracer-gas leak testing method]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
<!-- Commented out the already noted references-->
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite book|author=Brandt, L. W. |title= The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements|editor= Hampel, Clifford A. |chapter=Helium | location=New York |publisher=Reinhold |year=1968 |pages= 261 |LCCCN=Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-29938 |oclc= 449569 }}
*{{cite book | author = Bureau of Mines | title = Minerals yearbook mineral fuels Year 1965, Volume II (1967) | publisher = U. S. Government Printing Office | year = 1967 }}<!--Can't find this in worldcat -->
*{{cite web | url=http://chartofthenuclides.com/default.html|title=Chart of the Nuclides: Fourteenth Edition |publisher= General Electric Company |year=1989}}
*{{cite book|author=Emsley, John|title=The Elements |edition= 3rd ed. |location= New York |publisher= Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn= 978-0198558187 }}
*{{cite web|publisher=United States Geological Survey (usgs.gov)|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/helium/heliumcs07.pdf |title=Mineral Information for Helium |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-01-05}}
*{{cite web | url = http://web.archive.org/web/20050101090349/www.oma.be/BIRA-IASB/Public/Research/Thermo/Thermotxt.en.html | title = The thermosphere: a part of the heterosphere | author = Vercheval, J. |month= January | year= 2003| accessdate = 2008-07-12 | publisher = Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy}}
*{{cite journal |title = Isotopic Composition and Abundance of Interstellar Neutral Helium Based on Direct Measurements | author = Zastenker, G. N. |coauthors = E. Salerno, F. Buehler, P. Bochsler, M. Bassi, Y. N. Agafonov, N. A. Eismont, V. V. Khrapchenkov, H. Busemann|url= http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/asys/2002/00000045/00000002/00378626 |journal= Astrophysics |month= April | year= 2002 |volume= 45 |issue= 2 |pages= pp. 131&ndash;142 |doi= 10.1023/A:1016057812964}}
</div>

==External links==
{{Commons|Helium}}
{{wiktionary|helium}}
;General
*[http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=a8FJEiI5e6Q The Periodic Table of Videos - Helium]
*[http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/newsroom/2007/january/NR0701_2.html US Government' Bureau of Land Management: Sources, Refinement, and Shortage.] With some History of Helium.
*[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/helium/ U.S. Geological Survey Publicationson Helium] beginning 1996
*[http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele002.html It's Elemental &ndash; Helium]

;More detail
*[http://boojum.hut.fi/research/theory/helium.html Helium] at the [[Helsinki University of Technology]]; includes pressure-temperature phase diagrams for helium-3 and helium-4
*[http://www.lancs.ac.uk/depts/physics/research/condmatt/ult/index.html Lancaster University, Ultra Low Temperature Physics] - includes a summary of some low temperature techniques

;Miscellaneous
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/PHYSICS_!/SPEECH_HELIUM/speech.html Physics in Speech] with audio samples that demonstrate the unchanged voice pitch
*[http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/helium.htm Article about helium and other noble gases]
*[http://www.ebyte.it/stan/blog.html#08Feb29 Ebyte article] on helium scarcity and potential effects on [[NMR]] and [[MRI]] communities

{{E number infobox 930-949}}
{{Compact periodic table}}


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[[af:Helium]]
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Revision as of 14:06, 10 October 2008

Kutaisi
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 (2002)
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Time zoneUTC+4 (GMT)
 • Summer (DST)UTC+5 (GMT)
Websitekutaisi.gov.ge

Kutaisi (Georgian: ქუთაისი; ancient names: Aea/Aia, Kutatisi, Kutaïssi) is Georgia's second largest city and the capital of the western region of Imereti. It is 221 km to the west of Tbilisi.

Geography

Kutaisi is located along both banks of the Rioni River. The city lies at an elevation of 125-300 meters (410-984 feet) above sea level. To the east and north-east, Kutaisi is bounded by the Northern Imereti Foothills, to the north by the Samgurali Range, and to the west and the south by the Colchis Plain.

Climate

The climate in Kutaisi is humid subtropical with a well-defined on-shore/monsoonal flow (characteristic of the Colchis Plain) during the Autumn and Winter months. The summers are generally hot and relatively dry while the winters are wet and cool. Average annual temperature in the city is 14.5 degrees Celsius. January is the coldest month with an average temperature of 5.2 degrees Celsius while July is the hottest month with an average temperature of 23.2 degrees Celsius. The absolute minimum recorded temperature is -17 degrees Celsius and the absolute maximum is 44 degrees Celsius. Average annual precipitation is around 1530mm (60.2 inches). Rain may fall in every season of the year. The city often experiences heavy, wet snowfall (snowfall of 30cm/12 inches or more per single snowstorm is not uncommon) in the winter, but the snow cover usually does not last for more than a week. Kutaisi experiences powerful easterly winds in the summer which descend from the nearby mountains.

Landscape

Kutaisi is surrounded by deciduous forests to the northeast and the northwest. The low-lying outskirts of the city have a largely agricultural landscape. Because of the many gardens in the city centre and the high leafy trees alongside the sidewalks of its streets and boulevards, Kutaisi is painted in bright green in the spring and in yellow-red in the autumn. In the springtime, when the snow starts to melt in the nearby mountains, the storming Rioni River in the middle of the city is heard far beyond its banks.

History

Kutaisi in 1870

Kutaisi was the capital of the ancient Kingdom of Colchis. Archeological evidence indicates that the city functioned as the capital of the kingdom of Colchis as early as the second millennium BC. It is widely believed by historians that when Apollonius Rhodius was writing about Jason and the Argonauts and their legendary journey to Colchis, Kutaisi/Aia was the final destination of the Argonauts and the residence of King Aeëtes. In 975-1122 Kutaisi was the capital of the united Kingdom of Georgia, and in the 15th century-1810 the capital of the Imeretian Kingdom. In 1810 the Imeretian Kingdom was occupied by Tsarist Russia. Before Georgia's independence in 1991, followed by the country's economic collapse, Kutaisi was a major industrial center. Today, many inhabitants of the city have had to leave and work abroad. Small-scale trade prevails among the rest of the population.

Education and Science

Kutaisi is one of the most important educational and scientific centers in Georgia, hosting the Gelati Academy of Sciences, established in the 12th century by King David IV. Here is also one of the most important educational centers in modern Georgia, Ak'ak'i Ts'ereteli State University, established in 1930. Besides these two, there are many other universities, institutes, colleges and schools in Kutaisi.

Culture

Kutaisi has an ancient cultural tradition. Here is a list of the cultural centers in Kutaisi.

The 11th-century Bagrati Cathedral a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Gelati Monastery/Academy, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Museums, Archive, Library, Gallery, Art Salon:
1. Kutaisi State Historical Museum
2. Kutaisi Museum of Sport
3. Kutaisi Museum of Martial Art
4. Museum of Zakaria Paliashvili
5. Kutaisi State Historical Archive
6. Kutaisi State Scientific-Universal Library
7. David Kakabadze Fine Art Gallery
8. Art Salon

Theatres, Cinema and Entertaining Center:
1. Kutaisi Lado Meskhishvili State Academic Theatre
2. Kutaisi Meliton Balanchivadze State Opera House
3. Kutaisi Iakob Gogebashvili State Puppet Theatre
4. Cinema and Entertaining Center “Suliko”
5. Hermann-Wedekind-Jugendtheater

Professional Unions and Public Organizations:
1. Georgian Writers’ Union
2. Georgian Painters’ Union
3. Folk Palace

Media:
Local Newspapers: “Kutaisi”, “Imeretis Moabe”, “PS”, “Akhali Gazeti”, "Kutaisuri Versia", "Chveneburebi" (Journal); Scientific Journal “Gantiadi”.
TV: "Rioni"; Radio: "Dzveli Kalaki" (old City)


Also all the republican newspapers, journals and television stations have their representatives in Kutaisi.

Sport

RC AIA Kutaisi

Kutaisi has a great tradition in sports, with many famous sport clubs. FC Torpedo Kutaisi has participated on the highest level of the Soviet Union football league. After Georgia achieved independence, it won many domestic and international titles. RC AIA Kutaisi won the Soviet Championship several times in Rugby, and after independence, National Championships and Cups. Kutaisi also had an influential basketball club. Many famous Georgian athletes grew up here.


Landmarks

The landmark of the city is the ruined Bagrati Cathedral, built by Bagrat III, king of Georgia, in the early 11th century. The Bagrati Cathedral, and the Gelati Monastery a few km east of the city, are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. One of the famous churches in Georgia is Motsameta Church. It is named after two saints, brothers David and Constantine. They were the Dukes of Margveti, and were martyred by Arab invaders in the 8th century. Besides the churches, there are many interesesting places in Kutaisi, such as: Sataplia Cave, where one can observe footprints of Dinosaurs; Geguti Palace, which was one of the residences of Georgian monarchs; "Okros Chardakhi" – Georgian Kings’ Palace; and the Pantheon, where many notable citizens are buried.

Famous people born in Kutaisi

Sister cities

City Country
Columbia, Missouri United States United States
Newport United Kingdom United Kingdom
Vitoria-Gasteiz Spain Spain
Nikaia Greece Greece
Tula Russia Russia
Plovdiv Bulgaria Bulgaria
Ashqelon Israel Israel
Rasht Iran Iran
Samsun Turkey Turkey
Gyumri Armenia Armenia
Tianjin China People's Republic of China
Xinhua China People's Republic of China
Lyon France France
Bayonne France France
Donetsk Ukraine Ukraine
Kharkiv Ukraine Ukraine
Lviv Ukraine Ukraine
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kutaisi.

See also

External links

42°15′N 42°42′E / 42.250°N 42.700°E / 42.250; 42.700

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