Fiesole Archaeological Zone

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View from the Stadtberg over the theater to the thermal baths

The Archaeological Zone Fiesole ( Italian Area archeologica di Fiesole ) covers with a size of around three hectares central parts of an ancient Etruscan city, the later Roman Faesulum , in the place of which the Italian Fiesole is today. Fiesole is located on a ridge of the Apennines that dominates the central Arno Valley , northeast of the historic old town of Florence in Tuscany . The main attractions of the excavation on the northern edge of the old town include a theater that is used again today, an Etruscan-Roman temple and the thermal baths of the ancient city. In the archaeological museum, which was built above the theater on the hillside, the finds from the excavations can be viewed. On the northern edge of the excavations, a section of the exceptionally well-preserved Etruscan city wall can be viewed outside the archaeological zone.

The ancient building remains have inspired various artists, such as the Danish architectural painter Josef Theodor Hansen (1848–1912), who created a view of the theater in 1891, the German painter Werner Tübke (1929–2004), who made building studies and watercolors in 1985, and the Canadian Tom LaPierre (1930–2010), who painted a free implementation of the landscape of ruins in 1978.

History of the excavations

The outside staircase to the Roman temple
View over the theater
The access to the theater stage misinterpreted by Pettirossi as a triumphal arch. The fluted column shafts in front of the entrance were only put up again during the work on the partial reconstruction of the cavea in the 19th century.
The plan of the theater around 1875 after Oskar Delius
The arches of the frigidarium, which was partially reconstructed in the 19th century
The museum built between 1912 and 1914

As early as the early medieval foundation of the three-aisled Basilica di Sant'Alessandro von Fiesole, antique column drums and capitals were used as secondary items. Excavations in the church, which is no longer used for church services, brought Etruscan, Roman and Lombard finds to light.

11th century

Fiesole, which was then in a power struggle with Florence, was overrun and destroyed for the first time as early as 1010. Only a short time later, the then bishop Hildebrandt of Florence obtained permission from Emperor Heinrich II (973 / 978-1024) for the new construction of the decrepit church of San Miniato al Monte , which began in 1013/14, on a hill above the southern bank des Arno was to use building materials from the destroyed Fiesole. It is possible that ancient spoilage may have been used. Between 1025 and 1028, Bishop Jakob the Bavarian , who was still appointed by Emperor Heinrich II, started the construction of a new cathedral in Fiesole, which was dedicated to Saint Romulus . The German philologist Hans Dütschke (1848–1928) was certain that by then at the latest, parts of the theater directly adjacent to the church, including the high-quality stage, would have been removed for secondary use.

12th Century

At least the remains of the theater must have been visible well into the Middle Ages after the end of its ancient use. This is how the area of ​​the archaeological zone was called "Buca delle Fate" ( fairy hole ) by the inhabitants . In the cracks, crevices and holes, which formed the building remains, the fairies of Fiesoles were speculated. They stood as symbols for a better time and had withdrawn into the hidden walls so as not to have to look at the massacre and the destruction that the Florentines caused after the second conquest of Fiesole in 1125.

13./14. century

The rear thermal area

A first, brief note about the existence of the thermal baths of Fiesole dates from the 13th century and was passed down by Ricordano Malispini (around 1220 to around 1290), a Florentine historian. It reads: "... was un bagno chiamato 'Bagno Regio di Catilina' in cui venivano le acque da luni del monte un miglio e mezzo e uscivano da una bocca di leone che parea tutto vivo e naturale." (Translation: "... it was a bath called the 'Royal Bath of Catiline'. The water for this came down a mile and a half from the mountaintops and gushed from a snapdragon that appeared perfectly alive and natural. " Faesulum had developed in 63 BC. Involved in the attempted coup of Lucius Sergius Catilina . This was followed by the legend of the bathroom. In the 14th century, the Renaissance poet Fazio degli Uberti (around 1309 to around 1367) reported: "... Qui passo a dirti di quel monte come fue ricco di buoni bagni e bei ricetti, di gran condutti e d'uno d'altro ..." ( Translation: "At this point I would like to report about this mountain, which was rich in good baths and beautiful homes, with great, connecting water pipes."). It is not certain whether these early indications are reliable, as it cannot be proven to what extent remains of the thermal baths were still visible at the time, i.e. the authors reported from their own experience or relied on oral traditions.

18./19. century

Early, detailed writings on the excavations date from the end of the 18th century, when the first archaeological finds were documented in Fiesole with the enthusiasm for antiquity. According to the article written by Dütschke for 1876 and published in 1877, the theater building was completely covered with rubble and earth from the end of the Middle Ages to the beginning of the 19th century. Trees had been planted on the sloping terrain and a path led across the upper part of the rows of seats (cavea) . He only partially included structures from the ancient building. In 1792 the northern right corner of the staircase to the Roman temple happened to come to light. However, little attention was paid to their discovery, so that the structures that were preserved were subsequently destroyed. But at least the news of this discovery came to the attention of the Prussian baron Friedmann Heinrich Christian von Schellersheim (1752–1836; sometimes referred to as Friedrich von Scherlestein in Italian literature ), who began excavations at the Roman theater in Fiesole in 1809 and stayed until 1814 .

Excavations must have taken place beforehand, as the "Augsburgische Ordinari Postzeitung" reported in 1805 that a "beautiful amphitheater" was discovered in Fiesole "and most of it has already been excavated". The assumption made back then that “at least 30,000 people” found space there is confirmed by modern studies. Too often it was a lucrative, prestigious, and sensational greed for valuable antiquities that drove many early excavators. In addition, a curiosity for the undiscovered, which was sometimes destructive for the ancient buildings, often came to bear. The archaeological evidence as such was then often of secondary importance. In Fiesole, however, this attitude changed much earlier among the responsible city fathers than in many other ancient sites. A few years after leaving Schellersheim, it was therefore decided to completely cover the uncovered building remains with earth again in order to put a stop to the ongoing and continuous stone robbery by the population. The residents saw the exposed remains of the wall as a welcome quarry. In 1815, shortly before the re-filling of what had been discovered, Gaetan Pellucci from the Florentine noble family of the Bini drew the first comprehensive map of the archaeological excavations of Fiesole on behalf of the architect Giuseppe Del Rosso (1760-1831). Although Bini allowed some imagination to flow into the plan, it clearly reproduces the basic contours of the remains known at the time. After the theater was filled in again, a path quickly formed again across the cavea , which a car could easily pass. Only the ancient water container, which was preserved roughly in the middle of the north-western half of the cavea , still protruded from the earth at this time and was used by the residents of Fiesole to clean their laundry. The German philologist Friedrich Wieseler (1811-1892) dealt in his book "Theater Buildings and Monuments of the Theatrical System with the Greeks and Romans", published in 1851, in a purely theoretical manner based on the Italian literature that was available at the time with the filled-in theater.

It was not until 1870 that the chapter of the diocese of Fiesole was forced to give up the farm "Buca delle Fate", which roughly comprised the area of ​​the present archaeological zone, as large parts of the church property were expropriated by the state at that time. This paved the way for further research. The site was bought by the municipality of Fiesole in the same year. This decided to carry out further excavations immediately. So began in September 1873 under the direction of Marchese Carlo Strozzi (1810-1886) on behalf of the community, the work on the theater, which lasted until 1874.

In 1877 an Archaeological Commission was established with the task of continuing the excavations and ensuring the preservation of the monuments found. The first archaeological museum of Fiesole was established in 1878 in the historic Palazzo Pretorio. In the same year, the building record of the German master builder Oskar Delius (1846–1916) , who received a travel grant for Italy, was published as a lithograph as part of the detailed treatise by Dütschke . The plan, which still contains the modern route over the upper part of the Cavea under the notation “ε” , testifies to the status of the excavations at that time and the state before the reconstruction work from the perspective of an architect.

In 1891 excavations began in the Roman thermal baths and continued until 1899. The baths were within sight of the theater. The first groundbreaking took place near the frigidarium , where the praefurnium (heating room) for the hypocaust of the caldarium was also found. In 1895 the restoration of three sections of the wall, which can no longer be identified today, was carried out, whereby the Archaeological Commission estimated the scope of this work to be almost 300 cubic meters. As a rule, however, attempts were only made to secure and preserve the excavated stock, as the uncovered walls "were constantly exposed to very severe damage". The city's population still viewed the ruins as a quarry. In 1896, the Archaeological Commission noted further excavation and restoration work on the caldarium , the labrum (small cold water basin), the tepidarium and one wall of the cistern. It can be assumed that most of these works at that time have to be addressed as partial reconstructions. Limited maintenance measures were carried out this year on some retaining walls and in the area of ​​the heating system. In an article that appeared in the journal “Arte e Storia” in 1897, the artist and director of the Archaeological Museum, Demostene Macciò (1824–1910), recalled that 1896 was all about “acquiring what was discovered in the baths consolidate and restore ... to protect it from the damage it was exposed to due to the rigors of the seasons. ”The report of the following year then stated that there had been extensive excavations at the thermal baths that had been carried out without interruption. A wealth of data is conveyed again in this report, but without this it is no longer possible to reliably localize the measures afterwards. The excavation report becomes clearer with the descriptions of the uncovered remains of the steps to the piscina of the frigidarium and the tepidarium , which had a geometric marble paving. In the same year, the Archaeological Commission decided to continue the excavations at the entrance to the baths. The architect Alessandro Pettirossi (1636–1706) wanted to see a Roman triumphal arch there. It turned out, however, that this was an arch leading to the stage of the theater, which also served as a lateral support pillar for the audience tiers (auditorium) . Excavations were also carried out in the thermal baths in 1898.

It is questionable whether the findings and the finds were always in the foreground for all those involved in the excavations as a means of scientific processing, since the high workload also meant that a large number of inexpensive, unskilled workers had to be employed. However, the use of these unskilled helpers was a thorn in Macciò's side and contradicted his plea, published in 1897, that “because of the difficulty of overseeing them, it is not possible to employ a large number of helpers at the same time to ensure proper execution the work can be carried out and the recovered finds are not damaged or lost ”.

In 1899, while work was being carried out on the last Piscina , which was uncovered that year , vandalism was discovered by strangers, which had left damage to the floors and walls of the bathroom. Therefore, the Archaeological Commission asked the community to fence in the excavation site. The excavations at the theater had already ended in 1882. Reconstruction work took place in 1900 to make the building usable again for the public.

20th century

The adoption of new, cross-competency municipal statutes in 1904 led to an ongoing dispute between the members of the Archaeological Commission and the municipal administration. The differences concerned the use of the proceeds from the entrance fees to the excavations, which reached a relatively high value at the beginning of the 20th century. These contradictions led to a long interruption in the activities of the Archaeological Commission, which did not meet again until February 20, 1910 after the meeting of February 20, 1905. But the heyday of the Commission was over. The state laws passed in the first decade of the 20th century for the protection of cultural property made a significant contribution to this, as they reduced the competence and autonomy of the Archaeological Commission, which steadily lost its importance, especially after the passage of another municipal ordinance in 1911. In the years up to 1923 there were no more excavations at the thermal baths. After the enthusiasm and rich flow of funds in the first decades of research, economic difficulties slowed down all further endeavors.

The first excavations at the temple were carried out between 1899 and 1900. The philologist Luigi Adriano Milani (1854–1914) and the archaeologist Edoardo Galli (1880–1956) examined the temple, which was then regarded as an Etruscan work, as part of further excavations from 1910 to 1912 and were able to continue it from 1923 to 1924. The two excavation plans presented at the end of Galli caused confusion in international research circles, since they did not match the plan presented by Agnes Kirsopp Lake (1909-1993) in 1935. Galli interpreted the uncovered building remains as that of a three-cell temple for Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. He believed that he could see the capitolium of the ancient city in this sacred building . However, he went wrong with both considerations.

In 1953, the research on the great temple by the archaeologist Guglielmo Maetzke (1915-2008) was resumed, and continued in 1955 and completed by 1959. The remains of an older, Etruscan sacred building actually came to light beneath the Roman horizon of the temple uncovered by Milani and Galli.

Conservation and restoration work to protect the substance of the wall in the Termen is known from correspondence from the city of Fiesole in 1932, 1945 and 1947. Further measures to secure the masonry were secured by photographic documentation in the years from 1960 to 1970. From 1970 to the 1980s, conservation work at the thermal baths was only reported sporadically, with no documentation on this work.

Main building material

The majority of the entire ancient building stock in the archaeological zone was built from the locally pending Pietra Serena , a uniformly gray Italian sandstone. The Formazione del Macigno del Mugello , from which this stone originates, arose from sandy sediments when the Apennines began to bulge - depending on the researchers' opinion - in the Eo / Oligocene (1974) or in the Oligocene and early or middle Miocene (2016) .

Roman theater

One of the side entrances to the orchestra
View of the steps in front of the orchestra and the remains of the theater stage provided for the honorary chairs
Remnants of the plaster placed in front of the theater.
The marble fragment of a theater decoration frieze found in the 19th century. It shows a siren in front of a fireplace

The building, which lasted around three thousand visitors, was built in an original form, which is unknown today, perhaps under Sulla's aegis (around 138 BC to 78 BC). He established a veterans' colony in Faesulum . According to a stratifiable finding, the oldest building remains that can be proven today date from the Augustan era (31 BC to 14 AD). The theater building in Fiesole is one of the very early Roman theaters

The complex, built largely from Pietra Serena , is conceptually based on Greek tradition and was partially sunk into the surrounding rock, taking advantage of the natural slope of the site. In this form it describes a semicircle with the seating steps of the auditorium descending towards the orchestra . On the two outer left and right edge areas of the rows of seats, due to the lack of a natural slope, vault-supported radial walls were built to complement the otherwise incomplete semicircle. In contrast to the classical Greek theater building, the rows of seats ended directly with the stage. There was a clear separation of the two structures through the side entrances to the orchestra , the Parodoi . In the Roman theater, these entrances were under the outer auditorium and have been preserved in Fiesole to this day. The diameter of the semicircular auditorium (cavea) is 67 meters. The relatively small Orchestra , 22.14 meters in diameter, also shows the difference to Greece, as less importance was attached to the choir in the Roman theater business. The flooring of the Orchestra in Fiesole once consisted of polychrome marble slabs and ended at the proscenium . The orchestra is surrounded by four extra-wide steps on which the honorary chairs stood. Only the foundations are left of the stage building, which was once built to a high standard. A small part of the furnishings can be viewed in the form of a few remains of the marble decoration and a fragmented frieze in the archaeological museum of Fiesole. The theater stage (pulpitum) was divided by a central round and adjacent rectangular niche and was closed off by a simple geison bracket , whereby the row of brackets was integrated into a continuous row of profiles without tooth cut . In addition, the overall structure of the console series was only marginal.

Noteworthy is a rectangular building plan, which Delius marked with the notation "v" on his plan published in 1877 and which is located on a terrace at the apex above the cavea . It was connected to the theater by stairs. Possibly this place denotes the location of a temple as it was on 55 BC. It is attested that the Pompey Theater in Rome was inaugurated .

The theater building has been restored and further embellished several times. In particular, the construction work during the reign of Emperor Claudius (10 BC to 54 AD), whose time the frieze on the pulpit is stylistically assigned, and possibly under Septimius Severus (146-211), should be emphasized. The four fragments of the inscription, which point to the Severer and are only very uncertainly legible, were allegedly discovered on the area of ​​the theater. The German epigraphist Eugen Bormann (1842–1917) had already doubted this site :

[---] Septi [//] M [//] RO [---]

CIL XI 1571 deals with another badly damaged remains of inscriptions from the theater:

Re] gin [ae ---]
[---] Q (uinti) f (ilius) [---]
[---] V [---] / [d (onum)] d (edit)

The other inscriptions from the theater are also damaged almost beyond recognition.

The area above the auditorium has now been destroyed, so that the concentric circumferential gallery ( crypt ) behind it becomes visible, which visitors could enter via four vomitoriums . There are various proposals for reconstruction of how this gallery opposite the stage building was designed on the outside. A representative portico could have stood here. Four narrow stairs leading down from the gallery divide the auditorium into four sectors.

After the partial reconstructions of the 19th century, the theater, which can again accommodate around 2000 visitors, is used for opera performances and concerts in the summer months. There are also dance performances and lectures on ancient authors and historical abstracts led by scientists.

Etruscan-Roman podium stamp

The staircase to the podium of the Etruscan temple, uncovered in 1953
Overview of the last stage of development during the time of the high principate
The representative outside staircase of the last expansion stage
Detail on the podium of the Roman temple of the last expansion stage: rustic masonry with edging

The three-cell Roman temple with its spacious flight of stairs, via which the columned podium of the building could be climbed, is located on the northwestern slope of the town mountain of Fiesole and to the west of the ruins of the theater.

The excavations of the 20th century revealed the remains of an Etruscan temple from the 3rd century BC. As well as a significantly enlarged new building above it, which was built under Roman rule in the first century BC. BC originated. The last extensively expanded construction took place during the principate , the remains of which dominate the excavation area today.

Early Findings

The excavator Maetzke was particularly interested in the time before the first temple was built in order to find out as much as possible about the entire building history of this place. This enabled him to secure isolated finds from the Copper Age and the Villanova culture. Ceramic fragments in connection with wall remnants testify to the first secured Etruscan building at this place, which dates back to the Archaic period (approx. 800–500 BC). Its destination is unknown.

Etruscan temple

Later, at the beginning of the 3rd century BC, The first sacred building made of ashlar walls that can be identified as such. The scheme of the temple of the Antes , which originally came from Greece, was expanded to include a podium. The actual temple erected on the podium had only one single cella , 8.45 × 4.40 meters in size , but two side aisles. The total width of the west-facing rear wall of the temple, to which the two side walls of the cellella connected almost in the middle and at right angles, was 9.95 meters. The building was accessed via a central, axially oriented staircase. After the first four steps, this staircase was interrupted by a 5.40 × 1.67 meter intermediate landing, which was formed by six large stone slabs, which today have broken into many parts. Another four steps then led to the stylobate of the temple. The intermediate platform stood 3.40 meters in front of the pillars of the 8.14 meter deep vestibule ( pronaos ) . The relationship between the cella and the vestibule thus roughly corresponds to the architectural concept of Etruscan temples described by Vitruvius . The rising masonry of the actual sanctuary had a right-angled protruding wall wing ( Antae ) at both ends of the temple's back wall, which protruded to the front of the podium and with the two columns placed in between (in antis) formed a half-open vestibule. The distance between the two wings of the wall and the longitudinal walls of the cella was 2.82 and 2.73 meters and was therefore almost identical. Vitruvius (IV, 8,5) reports on this building type: "Where Antae protrude into the pronaos , sometimes two columns stand in line with each of the cella walls and thus form a combination of Tuscan and Greek buildings" (tuscanicorum et graecorum operum communis ratiocinatio ) .

The single-celled Etruscan-shaped podium stamps possibly go back to Italian, probably urban Roman models, as this construction method was unknown in the Etruscan heartland in earlier times. Numerous remains of the architectural decoration have been recovered, some of which were for restoration in the 2nd century BC. Speak. In addition to these workpieces, there were also references to votive offerings. These include statuettes made of bronze and terracotta, anatomical votive offerings, an owl and coins, including an ancient Roman semis dating from 89/88 BC. Dated. The actual altar of the sacred building was not in the cella , but at ground level in front of the staircase. The Romans did not remove this age, but kept it in situ and simply built over it. It was discovered by archaeologists under the front steps of the Roman sanctuary.

In contrast to the finding of the archaeologist Maetzke, followed by the Swedish archaeologist Anders Andrén , the archaeologist Ferdinando Castagnoli (1917–1988) came to the conclusion in 1967 that the temple with alae located in the archaeological zone was no older than the three-cell cult sites could be and therefore not occupy a key position within the development of the Tuscan temples. The temple of Fiesole is therefore not a prototype, since other, comparable sanctuaries also had a similar structure. Castagnoli followed the reconstruction proposals of the German archaeologist Theodor Wiegand (1864–1936) for the Tuscan sacred buildings with Alae or could imagine similar variations.

Roman temples

The next sacred building at this place was built under the Roman dictator Sulla (around 138-78 BC). At that time, the concept of the original temple was largely retained unchanged in its construction. The new Roman building largely followed the plan of the Etruscan sanctuary in an enlarged form. The podium was raised and widened. Thus the plant a new staircase was necessary that a stone wall made of ashlar possessed in the form of pillow blocks and the new portico led up. Like the Etruscan temple, the Roman reinterpretation had only one cella . The excavation findings show a temple rear wall that is 17.50 meters long facing downhill in the west. At the two ends of this rear wall, a lateral flank wall jumps forward at right angles. Between these two outer walls of the sanctuary there are two walls inside the building, also arranged at right angles, which run parallel to the outer walls. These two inner walls divide the usable area into a wide, centrally located inner part and two narrow outer room lines arranged to the left and right of it. While the cella in the middle had a concluding line of wall on its eastern front, such a wall could not be detected in front of the two side areas. Thus, the outer, south and north oriented temple walls can be interpreted as open wing walls ( alae ) with high probability . In front of the cella, Galli exposed two irregular foundations, which can be seen as bases for two columns supporting the pronaos . Possibly this new building had a vestibule dominated by a total of four columns (tetrastil) with the proven width .

In the high time of the principate , the level of the temple was raised again, with the large open staircase with the wide pronaus that is visible today . The Roman temple may not have been the main sanctuary of the Faesulum veteran colony. A Latin inscription found in Fiesole refers to a capitolium and the three deities worshiped there: Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Their sacred building was probably on or near the later Roman forum. Unfortunately this forum and with it the Capitol has not been discovered until today.

Roman thermal baths

The cold water pool in front of the thermal baths. The stairs to the higher Palaestra can be seen in the background .

The age of the thermal baths is scientifically discussed, whereby all opinions are based on a foundation from the 1st century BC. Set. According to Galli's investigations, he decided on this time as early as 1914. The thermal complex was built near the theater. It is located on a plateau in the sloping terrain to the Mugnone River on the upper slope of the town hill of Fiesole. The overall size of the complex is almost rectangular and borders the Etruscan city wall in the north, the city hill and the Piazza del Mercato Nuovo in the east and south-east, the hillside leading up to the old town in the south and the property next to the outer facade in the west (Postscaenium) of the theater. The layout dimensions of the entire system are around 75 meters along the east-west axis and 53 meters along the north-south axis. There are still many doubts about the identification of individual rooms and smaller visible structures. There are no building remains or other indications that make it clear which areas of the bathroom were covered and which were not. The roof design remains uncertain, but the height of the three arches in the frigidarium indicates a not inconsiderable total height of the structure. In analogy to other bathrooms of the same period or with similar room layouts, it seems likely that the thermal baths in Fiesole were roofed with barrel vaults and ceiling openings to let in light. As the archaeologist Elizabeth Shepherd discovered in 1989 with a view to findings from the Roman thermal baths under the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, the excavations carried out in the Fiesole caldarium in the late 19th century found, among other things, five iron rods, the ends of which were forged hook-shaped or angular were. This could indicate a suspended brick vault where the iron bars were used as connecting elements between the actual roof or ceiling structure.

The ruins of the bathhouse in Fiesole still do not clearly reveal the system that prevails between the individual rooms. Since there were no traces of a separate women's bathroom, it must be assumed that the main rooms were singular and therefore used by both sexes. In contrast, the entrances to the bathroom and the changing rooms could be separated. The bathroom also had a lavish and rich equipment. During the excavations, however, only a few remains of these wall and floor decorations could be detected.

Building material

A large percentage of the entire thermal complex was built from the local Pietra Serena . This stone was used in the most varied of dimensions in these construction projects and was bonded with lime-based mortars. Bricks were also used to a lesser extent. The latter were used in the construction of the suspensura and the ovens, although today only a very small proportion of the bricks can be regarded as originals. In addition, some walls were lined with brick material. Terracotta fragments , the composition of which ranges from fine to coarse, were sometimes used as additives for the lime mortar. There are also terracotta tiles as a basis for building up the suspensura in the warm bath ( caldarium ) .

Water supply

Every thermal bath required an abundant and continuous water supply for its operation. The water at the Fiesole thermal baths probably came from the Montereggi springs, which are around four kilometers away and located northeast of the city. This is indicated by the archaeological record, in which the remains of pipelines and supply lines were found. The main pipelines themselves crossed under the ancient city in an east-west direction.

Outdoor area

After Galli, the westernmost of the swimming pools, which was built there in the middle in front of the narrow side of the thermal baths, was only added during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117-138). This unheated rectangular pool, which is already outside the actual thermal baths, has a maximum size of 19.80 × 6.40 meters. It lay beneath a cryptoporticus that ran almost over the entire western front of the baths and was bordered by two parallel walls. This portico and the bathing complex behind it were accessed via two stone stairwells facing west-east, which closed off the portico in the north and south and formed the main entrances to the thermal bath complex.

Palaestra

The palaestra with the cold water basin in front and the adjoining cistern. Part of the cryptoporticus can still be seen on the left; On the right you can see the east wall of the once covered thermal bath area

The actual bathing area, which is around 1.60 meters higher, could be reached through the two stairwells. To the east of the cryptoporticus, two further basins have been preserved in the area of ​​the palaestra typical of Roman baths . These are limited on the north and south sides by two long corridors. The smaller rectangular basin to the north is referred to as a 10.40 × 14.60 meter cistern that was around two meters deep. The cistern was built with blocks and slabs from Pietra Serena . On the north and west sides, large horizontally lying slabs of pietra serena were preserved at the edges , which are between 0.30 and 0.40 meters thick. These plates are now heavily eroded on the surface by wind and weather . At the ends of the west side there are two more panels with an average size of 1.40 × 1.50 × 0.30 meters. A central hole was drilled into each of these two plates, each covering two shafts around 1.90 meters deep. The immediately adjacent cold water basin has a size of 20.80 × 12.80 meters with an average depth of three meters. The masonry of this basin is made up of blocks measuring 0.30 × 0.20 × 0.10 meters on the average and with panels made of Pietra Serena on the long sides and was designed for swimmers.

Five supporting pillars, which are in front of the Etruscan city wall and obviously belong to the bathing complex, have been preserved on the northern long side of the north corridor. The archaeologist Alfredo de Agostino (1897–1976) assumed that the ephebeum or apodyterium , the changing room for the people who played sports on the palaestra, was located there.

The eastern end of the Palaestra is formed by the once roofed, partly heated bathrooms. At the eastern end of the southern corridor and in the middle of the eastern wall of the palaestra , which is divided by irregular protruding masonry , two entrances to this thermal area have been preserved. In 1941, Maria Lombardi saw the access on the east wall as the main entrance. The small rectangular room immediately to the left behind this entrance was referred to by most scientists as the apodyterium , albeit with caution .

Tepidarium

Heat exchange between the caldarium and tepidarium took place through small, rectangular wall openings, two of which have been preserved

Stairs led past the possible apodyterium from the entrance to the palaestra up into the leaf bath ( tepidarium ) . Opposite the possible apodyterium was another not very spacious room, the use of which is difficult to interpret. This could also have been a changing room. The archaeologists were only able to reconstruct the steps of the stairs mentioned using traces on the walls. Since no remnants of the suspensura have been preserved in the tepidarium , it becomes clear that the ancient walking horizon must have been more than a meter higher and thus enabled level access to the warm bath to the south. Since the rising masonry showed only a poor state of preservation during the excavations, the originally existing access between the tepidarium and caldarium could not be proven. Heat was exchanged between the caldarium and tepidarium by means of two small, rectangular openings in the south wall at the level of the suspensura . Possibly the leaf bath could also be heated by its own stove, as it is still indicated on the east side of the room. For the scientists, however, there are doubts as to whether the partially reconstructed remains of this structure can actually be interpreted in this way.

Caldarium

View from the caldarium with the underfloor heating over the tepidarium to the three round arches of the frigidarium

In contrast to the tepidarium , in the caldarium a small part of the approximately 0.65 meter high suspensura , which belongs to the hypocaust complex and rests on a base made of terracotta tiles, was preserved. In addition to the octagonal brick pillars erected on these tiles, about 0.43 meters apart, which support the floor made of fire-resistant mortar, the scientists were also able to detect the hollow bricks (tubules) attached to the rising walls . These hollow bricks, which are typical of classic Roman hot air heating, had a rectangular cross-section and also let the heat circulate on all wall surfaces. Today's partially reconstructed state is based on the original findings. Therefore only a few visible building elements actually come from Roman times. In addition to the rectangular room, which had a brick floor made of 0.60 × 0.60 × 0.04 meters large, two-legged suspensura cover plates (bipedales) , there was a hot water basin in a niche built on to the north that circumscribed a semicircle. A second basin existed on the east side. The archaeological findings there separate another, long rectangular basin from the main room. While the English architectural historian Geoffrey Scott (1895), Galli (1913?) And Lombardi (1941) agreed that there was a plunge pool, de Agostino claims to have seen a steam bath ( laconicum ) in the findings in 1973 . On the west side of the room opposite this basin there is a slightly rounded apsidal wall bulge, which belonged to another heated bathing area. A hot water tub ( labrum ) that has not been preserved may be located there. This area of ​​the room was also equipped with a suspensure , but this was only fed with hot air from the main room of the caldarium through a small opening in the wall . Therefore, the temperatures in the alleged labrum could not have been quite as high as in the parts of the room controlled directly with hot air. The three mentioned secondary areas in the east, west and south of the caldarium as well as the main room itself all had the same terracotta floor during the excavation. The remains of the suspensura also kept the ground level here. The fact that no traces of a sweat bath (sudatorium) were found in the thermal baths of Fiesole could confirm the close relationship with the oldest Roman building types of this genre, in which the simplest form of a Roman bathing facility with its original composition can be found. On the south-west side, directly next to the apse of the hot water basin, there is another rectangular room, which could originally be reached through the south corridor leading past the Palaestra and, according to Lombardi (1941) and De Agostino (1973), probably as a heating system ( praefurnium ) has served with the hot water boilers (Vasa) . The access to this possible praefurnium is at the east end of the corridor mentioned . Its eastern wall leans against the city hill rising immediately behind it and ends at right angles with the rear wall of the caldarium . Only a few rows of stones remained from this wall. Towards the bathroom, the room has a round arch made of radially hewn cuboids and bricks. In the arch itself and to the right and left of the arch within the possible praefurnium , remains of walls or cheek walls can be seen. These cheek walls could have served as a base for a boiler system, with the help of which the hot air was generated, which heated the immediately adjacent small semicircular hot water basin in the caldarium . On the eastern outer wall of the caldarium , two more heating areas have been preserved. The praefurnium there served as the main source of heat for the warm bath. Today two round, partially reconstructed ovens can be seen there, the rising masonry of which was made from square brick slabs (20 × 20 × 3 centimeters). These ovens were part of the boiler system. There is another round arch between the two ovens, through which the hot air could enter the suspensura of the caldarium . The remains of a rear wall of the praefurnium were examined between the ovens and the rising city hill . The necessity of largely delimiting the area around the ovens in order to avoid unnecessary heat loss was known and can still be demonstrated in many Roman thermal baths. In addition to the furnaces, the boiler system also included large cylindrical water tanks clad in Fiesole with lead plates. The Roman engineers prescribed up to three water tanks connected in series, which were connected to one another by pipes. One of these tanks, which still weighs around six quintals and has remains of the pipelines made of lead, can be viewed today in the Archaeological Museum of Fiesole.

  • Findings in the caldarium

  • View of the partially reconstructed suspensura and the arches of the frigidarium behind

  • The marble-clad hot water basin. The walls were additionally heated by tubules

  • The arch next to the hot water basin, probably belonging to a small praefurnium to the south

  • The large eastern praefurnium with two ovens . Hot air flowed through an arch into the caldarium

  • View of the southern of the two ovens made of rectangular bricks in the eastern Praefurnium

  • Through this applied between the two ovens arc hot air was the suspensura brought

Frigidarium

The northernmost areas of the thermal baths form the cold bath ( frigidarium ) . Here is the largest room in the bathroom, which is divided into two parts by three round arches. The rectangular columns of the 4.40 meter high round arches are arranged 2.50 meters apart and are made of Pietra Serena . The individual components of the arches are originals, but the surface was worked up in the partial reconstruction of the late 19th century and therefore appear almost like new. In antiquity, these columns were covered with polychrome marble slabs, which can still be seen through holes for the connecting tenons. The small rectangular pool immediately east of the arches was used as a cold water pool. This basin has a trapezoidal floor plan with rounded, sloping sides. The western long side was measured with 10.25 meters, the shorter eastern side with 8.25 meters. The total width of the pool is 5.50 meters. A step with a profile thickness of 0.42 meters runs around the edge of the pool. This bathing area is entered from the west via the three arches. Two steps, ten meters long, 0.40 meters wide and 0.50 meters high, lead into the pool. In addition to the hand-crafted stone material to build the pool, bricks were also used.

  • Findings in the frigidarium

  • Detail of the three round arches from Pietra Serena with the steps leading down to the cold water basin

  • View of the cold water pool. Among other things, the 0.42 meter wide pool edge is clearly visible

latrine

The rectangular beam holes are visible in the latrine. The marble seating was attached here

In the room behind this basin of the frigidarium is the latrine of the thermal baths. This latrine had a size of 6.60 x 4.30 meters. The six Pietra Serena stone blocks, which run along the edges , are of inconsistent dimensions and have grooves for drainage. Above the third lower stone layer of the rising walls is a layer that protrudes slightly from the bond and at the same time has rectangular wall slots. Here was the construction of the seating made of long marble slabs, in which round holes were cut to accommodate the buttocks. Marble slabs attached to the side rounded off the front of the seats in a box shape. There is a small water reservoir in the southwest corner of the latrine. The wide northern corridor, which runs from the entrance area of ​​the bath and the cryptoporticus, past the palaestra to behind the frigidarium , is bordered by the Etruscan city wall immediately to the north and ended directly at the latrine, with which it was most likely connected. In 1929, the German building researcher Daniel Krencker (1874–1941) saw the apodyterium in this long corridor .

Longobard burial ground Via Riorbico

After the invasion of Italy 568/569 sunken founded Lombards the Regnum Langobardorum with the Duchy of Tuscia , was one of the Faesulum. The new citizens living in the city founded new cemeteries and buried their dead in and near the last temple building, which now belonged to a large necropolis. The grave field in the archaeological zone attests to the presence of Lombards in Faesulum from the early 6th century to the second half of the 7th century. In view of the relative size of the burial ground, it can be assumed that the Lombards probably only made up part of the population. However, the small amount of finds does not indicate whether the Lombards present were civil families or mainly warriors. However, it appears that there were high-ranking personalities, as finds from grave 24 suggest. In order to give a final assessment, one would have to know, among other things, how many graves were looted since the early Middle Ages.

As far as can be seen from Galli's excavation report, at least all burial places within the temple were recorded. How far the excavators continued their investigations outside of the sacred building is not clear from the report. However, especially on the east side, the tombs seem to have only been excavated in the area of ​​two search cuts. By the end of the excavation in 1924, a total of 27 body graves had been uncovered, six of which were outside and 21 inside the temple area. The massed laying down within the walls of the abandoned sanctuary suggests that at least parts of the structure were still upright at that time. Galli's report seems to confirm this. The archaeologist found post-Roman "barbaric" fixtures in the area of ​​the pagan cella and assumed that there was a Christian burial chapel that belonged to the cemetery. A more or less east-west orientation of the burial places could be determined, which were grouped in rows. All graves were made of stone slabs, spoils of ancient buildings. Among them was a stone slab from Pietra Serena , which contained an inscription referring to the restoration of the temple in the 1st century BC. Pointed out. The excavation report is silent about the location of the dead in these graves. Most likely, however, they were buried in a stretched position with the orientation usual for that time - their heads facing east. It is also unknown how many grave sites have been disrupted earlier.

The only weapon found in grave 4 was a relatively narrow winged lance tip with a long socket. Remains of the binding, which consisted of strong wires and an iron tube, could still be documented on the lance. The piece could be from the second half of the 7th century. This dating is supported by a fragmented iron belt buckle, also from grave 4. Without any further connection with a tomb, a Longobard spathe was discovered during the excavations in the temple area , which is now in the collection of the archaeological museum of Fiesole. It can be assumed that this weapon was originally located in a destroyed Longobard grave of the necropolis. In grave 9 there was a solid cast oval belt buckle made of bronze without fittings. The execution of this find is typical of the Lombard grave sites in Italy and is comparable to two finds from the Swiss burial ground of Bülach (grave 32 and 235). The latter are dated to the first half of the 7th century. A small bronze buckle from grave 6, which has an iron buckle pin used as a replacement, belongs to a very similar period. One type of buckle from grave 22 can be traced back to northern Italy throughout the first half of the 7th century and beyond. A bronze hairpin from grave 8 with a kinked upper end is clearly in Roman tradition and has its model in the stylus ( Stiles ) . Parts of a glass pearl necklace and a small pierced bronze coin typical of Lombard graves come from grave 24. The pearls date to the last third of the 6th and well into the 7th century, while the coin was an old piece from the 4th century, probably Constantinian . In addition to the pearls and the coin, the grave also contained a clay jar. In grave 21 some gold finds could be examined, which must have belonged to a high-ranking personality. Remains of a robe made of gold brocade were found , which is also a relatively common find in the Lombard grave context . In addition, gold necklace pendants were recovered from this grave.

The heavily thinned, hard-fired ceramics of the burial ground can be summarized in three groups: jugs, which usually have a bulbous shape and a ribbon-shaped handle, handle-less bottles with a round spout and a circular bowl with a wide, sloping, slightly curved rim. All ceramic pieces from these tombs are derived from Roman models, genuinely Longobard goods are missing. The glass finds, including "stem glasses", are well known and can also be assigned to the 7th century.

Some of the stone box graves are still visible in the archaeological zone. Another Longobard burial ground was discovered in today's city center at the town hall. Four of these body graves can be seen in the archaeological museum of Fiesole.

  • Longobard finds in the archaeological museum of Fiesole

  • Longobard burial place reconstructed in the museum. The found items include a Franziska , a sax and a glass goblet

  • Belt slabs, grave finds

  • Ceramics

  • Glass goblet with thread decoration

Lost property

Today's museum in the style of an ancient temple with Ionic columns was built between 1912 and 1914 and would be built on the site above the theater. Its architect was Ezio Cerpi (1868-1958). In addition to the finds from Fiesole, private donations, including collections of valuable Greek and Etruscan ceramics, are shown.

literature

  • Giuseppe Del Rosso: Saggio di osservazioni sui monumenti dell'antica città di Fiesole. Pagani, Firenze 1814.
  • Friedrich Wieseler : The theater to Fäsulä. In: Theater buildings and monuments to the theater of the Greeks and Romans. Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, Göttingen 1851, pp. 20–21.
  • Hans Dütschke : The ancient theater of Fiesole . In: Archäologisches Institut des Deutschen Reiches, Max Fränkel (Ed.): Archäologische Zeitung 34, 1877, pp. 93-105.
  • Michelangelo Maiorfi : Descrizione dei ruderi monumentali ritrovati negli scavi a Fiesole . Tipografia Barbèra, Firenze 1912.
  • Edoardo Galli : Fiesole, gli scavi, il Museo Civico . Milano 1914, pp. 32-46, pp. 145-146.
  • Antonio Minto : I teatri romani di Firenze e di Fiesole , In: Dioniso 6, 1937, pp. 1-7.
  • Arvid Andrén : Architectural terracottas from Etrusco-Italic temples , therein: Fiesole. The Temple in the Zona Archeologica . In: Acta Instituti Romani Regni Sueciae . Lund / Leipzig 1940, p. 309.
  • Maria Lombardi: Faesulae (Fiesole) Regio VII, Etruria . Istituto di Studi Romani, Rome 1941.
  • Guglielmo Maetzke: Il nuovo tempio tuscanico di Fiesole . In: Studi Etruschi 24, 1955/1956, pp. 227-254.
  • Giacomo Caputo, Guglielmo Maetzke: Presentazione del rilievo di Fiesole antica . In: Studi Etruschi , 27, 1959, pp. 45-49.
  • Alfredo de Agostino : Fiesole. The archaeological site and the museum (= guide to the museums, galleries and monuments of Italy 83). Istituto Poligrafico, Rome 1964
  • Otto von Hessen : The Longobard Age grave finds from Fiesole near Florence. Callwey, Munich 1966.
  • Otto von Hessen: Primo contributo alla archeologia longobarda in Toscana. Le necropoli . Accademia toscana di scienze e lettere «La Colombaria». Series Studi 18, Olschki, Firenze 1971. p. 38 ff.
  • Ferdinando Castagnoli: Sul tempio ‚Italico . In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute. Roman department. Bullettino dell'Istituto Archeologico Germanico. Sezione Romana. 73/74, 1966/67, p. 10 ff.
  • Henner von Hesberg : Konsolengeisa des Hellenism and the early Imperial Era (= communications of the German Archaeological Institute, Roman Department. Supplementary booklet 24) Zabern, Mainz 1980, ISBN 3-8053-0469-2 , p. 211.
  • Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Terme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984
  • Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Terme Romane di Fiesole . In Luigi Marino (ed.): Conservazione e manutenzione di manufatti edilizi ridotti allo stato di rudere . Report 1/1989, Firenze 1989, p. 104 f.
  • Michaela Fuchs : Il Teatro romano di Fiesole. Corpus delle sculture (= Studia Archaeologica 40), L'Erma di Bretschneider, Roma 1986, ISBN 88-7062-591-5
  • Silvia Orlandini, Carlo Salvianti: Fiesole Archeologica - Archeology in Fiesole. Guide to the archaeological collections of the Museo civico, Fiesole . Idea, Milano 1990, ISBN 88-7017-080-2 .
  • Monica Salvini: Fiesole. Contributi alla ricerca delle origini. Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici (= Biblioteca di »Studi Etruschi« 19), Olschki, Firenze, 1990.
  • Mario Torelli , Concetta Masseria , Mauro Menichetti, Marco Fabbri: Atlante dei siti archeologici della Toscana . "L'Erma" di Bretschneider, Roma 1992, ISBN 88-7062-785-3 , p. 125.
  • Maria Milvia Morciano: Note e discussioni: La lettura delle mura di Faesulae . In: Giovanni Uggeri (Ed.): Journal of Ancient Topography 4, (= Atti del Primo Congresso di Topografia Antica 1993), 1994, pp. 161-171.
  • Luigi Marino, Cinzia Nenci u. a .: L'area archeologica di Fiesole. Rilievi e ricerche per la conservazione . Alinea, Firenze 1995, ISBN 88-8125-017-9 .
  • Marco De Marco: Fiesole. Area archeologica e museo . Guide Ufficiali Musei di Fiesole, Giunti, Firenze 1999, ISBN 8809012771 .
  • Chantal Gabrielli: Una nuova testimonianza di seviro augustale da 'Faesulae' . In: Notiario della Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Toscana 11, 2015, pp. 195–198.

Web links

Commons : Fiesole Archaeological Zone  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Remarks

  1. ↑ a b c d e Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 33.
  2. ↑ Hans Dütschke : The ancient theater of Fiesole . In: Archäologisches Institut des Deutschen Reiches, Max Fränkel (ed.): Archäologische Zeitung 34, 1877, pp. 93-105; here: p. 93.
  3. ↑ Guido Tigler : Toscana romanica , Patrimonio Artistico Italiano, Jaca, ISBN 881660350X , Milano 2006, p. 167.
  4. ↑ a b c Hans Dütschke : The ancient theater of Fiesole . In: Archäologisches Institut des Deutschen Reiches, Max Fränkel (ed.): Archäologische Zeitung 34, 1877, pp. 93-105; here: p. 94.
  5. ↑ Ricordano Malispini: Historiae Fiorentine , Chapter 25 (1270/1290)
  6. ^ Fazio degli Uberti: Dittamondo (1318/1360)
  7. ↑ a b c d e f Roberto Sabelli : Le terme . In: Luigi Marino, Cinzia Nenci u. a .: L'area archeologica di Fiesole. Rilievi e ricerche per la conservazione . Alinea, Firenze 1995, ISBN 88-8125-017-9 , pp. 63-66; here: p. 64.
  8. ^ Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 22.
  9. ^ Augsburgische Ordinari Postzeitung von Staats-, schehrten, histor- u. economic news. 100, 1805, p. 2.
  10. ^ Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, pp. 22-23.
  11. ↑ Hans Dütschke : The ancient theater of Fiesole . In: Archäologisches Institut des Deutschen Reiches, Max Fränkel (ed.): Archäologische Zeitung 34, 1877, pp. 93-105; here: p. 98.
  12. ^ Friedrich Wieseler : The theater to Fäsulä. In: Theater buildings and monuments to the theater of the Greeks and Romans. Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, Göttingen 1851, pp. 20–21.
  13. ^ A b Luigi Marino, Cinzia Nenci: L'area archeologica di Fiesole. Rilievi e ricerche per la conservazione . Alinea, Firenze 1995, ISBN 88-8125-017-9 , p. 20.
  14. ^ A b Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 23.
  15. ↑ a b c d Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 24.
  16. ↑ a b c Arvid Andrén : Architectural terracottas from Etrusco-Italic temples , therein: Fiesole. The Temple in the Zona Archeologica . In: Acta Instituti Romani Regni Sueciae . Lund / Leipzig 1940, p. 309.
  17. ^ Excavations in Fiesole . In: Gnomon , 1, 2, 1925, pp. 112-113.
  18. ^ Agnes Kirsopp Lake : The Archaeological Evidence for the "Tuscan Temple" . In: Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome . University of Michigan Press, 12, 1935, pp. 89-149.
  19. ^ Guglielmo Maetzke: Il nuovo tempio tuscanico di Fiesole . In: Studi Etruschi 24, 1955/1956, pp. 227-254.
  20. ↑ Monica Salvini: Fiesole. Contributi alla ricerca delle origini. Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici (= Biblioteca di "Studi Etruschi" 19), Olschki, Firenze, 1990, p. 105.
  21. ↑ Find report Northern and Central Italy 1949–1959 . In: Yearbook of the German Archaeological Institute 74, 1960, p. 1957.
  22. ^ Gabor Dessau : The deposits of Tuscany in the light of the geological development of the country . In: Archive for deposit research in the Eastern Alps , special volume 2, 1974, pp. 51–77, here: p. 55.
  23. ↑ Filippo Carboni, Ugo Amendola, Salvatore Critelli, Simonetta Cirilli, Francesco Perri, Paolo Monaco and others. v. a .: Composition and provenance of the Macigno Formation (Late Oligocene – Early Miocene) in the Trasimeno Lake area (northern Apennines). In: Marine and Petroleum Geology 69, 2016, pp. 146–167.
  24. ↑ Cicero : Catilinarian speeches 2, 20; Sallust : Bellum Catilinae 24.
  25. ^ A b Henner von Hesberg : Konsolengeisa des Hellenism and the early Imperial Era (= communications of the German Archaeological Institute, Roman Department. Supplementary booklet 24), von Zabern, Mainz 1980, ISBN 3-8053-0469-2 , p. 211.
  26. ↑ CIL 11, 01546 .
  27. ↑ CIL 11, 01571 .
  28. ↑ CIL 11, 01572 ; CIL 11, 01573 .
  29. ↑ a b c d e f g h Mario Torelli , Concetta Masseria , Mauro Menichetti, Marco Fabbri: Atlante dei siti archeologici della Toscana . "L'Erma" di Bretschneider, Roma 1992, ISBN 88-7062-785-3 , p. 125
  30. ↑ a b Excavations in Fiesole . In: Gnomon , 1, 2, 1925, pp. 112-113; here p. 112.
  31. ^ A b c Axel Boëthius , Roger Ling, Tom Rasmussen: Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture (Pelican History of Art), Yale University Press, New Haven / London 1994, ISBN 0-300-05290-1 , p. 43.
  32. ↑ Luisa Banti : The world of the Etruscans . Klipper, Stuttgart 1960. p. 24.
  33. ^ A b c d Roger Bradley Ulrich: The Roman Orator and the Sacred Stage. The Roman Templum Rostratum , (= Collection Latomus 222), Latomus Revue d'Études Latines, Brussels 1994 2-87031-162-1, p. 51.
  34. ^ Hans Riemann : Book reviews: Luigi Crema : L'Architettura Romana ; Luigi Crema: Significato dell'architettura romana . In: Gnomon 38, 5, 1966, pp. 488-503; here: p. 492.
  35. ^ Ferdinando Castagnoli: Sul tempio ‚Italico . In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute. Roman department. Bullettino dell'Istituto Archeologico Germanico. Sezione Romana. 73/74, 1966/67, p. 10 ff .; here p. 12.
  36. ^ A b Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 39.
  37. ↑ a b c d Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 38.
  38. ↑ Elizabeth Shepherd: Concamarationes in ferro nitentes. Una regola vitruviana applicata nelle Terme Romane di Piazza della Signoria a Firenze. In: Communications of the German Archaeological Institute, Roman Department 96, 1989, pp. 419–431; here: p. 429.
  39. ^ Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 43.
  40. ^ Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 34.
  41. ↑ a b c d Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 35.
  42. ^ A b c Roberto Sabelli : Le terme . In: Luigi Marino, Cinzia Nenci u. a .: L'area archeologica di Fiesole. Rilievi e ricerche per la conservazione . Alinea, Firenze 1995, ISBN 88-8125-017-9 , pp. 63-66; here: p. 63.
  43. ^ Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 40.
  44. ^ Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 36.
  45. ^ A b c Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 37.
  46. ↑ Günther Garbrecht , Hubertus Manderscheid : The water management of Roman thermal baths, archaeological and hydrotechnical investigations (= messages 118 (A)), DFG research project Ga 183/29, Leichtweiß-Institut für Wasserbau, Braunschweig 1994 p. 29.
  47. ^ Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 41.
  48. ^ Francesca Bellini delle Stelle, Anna Mannari, Roberto Sabelli: Le Therme Romane di Fiesole . Commune di Fiesole, Museo Civico, Fiesole 1984, p. 42.
  49. ↑ Daniel Krenker: Comparative studies of Roman baths . In: Daniel Krencker , Emil Krüger , Hans Lehmann , Hans Wachtler (eds.): The Trier Kaiserthermen. Department I. Excavation report and basic investigations of Roman thermal baths (= Trier excavations and research 1), Dr. Benno Filser Verlag, Augsburg 1929, pp. 174-305.
  50. ^ A b Otto von Hessen : The Longobard Age grave finds from Fiesole near Florence. Callwey, Munich 1966. p. 7.
  51. ↑ a b c Otto von Hessen: Primo contributo alla archeologia longobarda in Toscana. Le necropoli . Accademia toscana di scienze e lettere «La Colombaria». Series Studi 18, Olschki, Firenze 1971. p. 38 ff .; here: p. 46.
  52. ↑ a b c Otto von Hessen : The Longobard Age grave finds from Fiesole near Florence. Callwey, Munich 1966. p. 8.
  53. ^ A b Otto von Hessen : The Longobard Age grave finds from Fiesole near Florence. Callwey, Munich 1966. p. 9.
  54. ↑ Angelica Degasperi : La moneta in tomba nella Toscana centro-settentrionale tra Alto e Bassomedioevo . In: Archeologia Medievale 39, 2012, pp. 337-354; here: p. 340.
  55. ↑ Otto von Hessen : The Longobard Age grave finds from Fiesole near Florence. Callwey, Munich 1966. p. 10.
  56. ↑ Otto von Hessen : The Longobard Age grave finds from Fiesole near Florence. Callwey, Munich 1966. p. 12.
  57. ^ Claudio Paolini: Cronologia dei principali fatti avvenuti nella città di Firenze dall'anno Milleseicento ad oggi . Polistampa, Firenze 2007, ISBN 978-88-596-0289-7 , p. 129.