Drama theory

Drama theories (Greek: dráma "action", theõría "seeing, contemplation") deal with the question of what is characteristic of a drama . The drama is understood as an art form in which a written template becomes the starting point for a performance.

In contrast to the genres of poetry and epic, which are about spaces of imagination opened up by texts in the reader's imagination, the drama claims the sensual perception of an audience during the performance.

Drama theories have been put forward by authors or dramaturges since ancient times . Sometimes they try to sort existing dramas inductively according to similarities or to justify them in relation to other dramas, sometimes they are also intended as a program for future dramas with ethical or political goals or as instructions for the construction of "good" dramas.

Since today's drama theory understands its subject as a " plurimedial form of representation" that only develops its full effect in the context of text and performance, it goes beyond the pure text analysis of the drama text, which is essentially limited to the interpretation and interpretation of the text substrate .

term

In antiquity, and again from the Renaissance to around 1900, drama was the most respected genre of poetry , even if it increasingly surpassed the novel in its public significance. Hence there has been constant discussion about what constitutes and distinguishes this respectable from the less prestigious. In the theories of drama, for example, attempts were made to reconcile the literary quality and the social rank of a drama or to play them off against one another. This is particularly true of the traditional distinction between tragedy and comedy . Since the late 18th century, commercial success has also been a reason for positive or negative reviews. In this context, the private folk piece separated from the courtly drama.

Furthermore, rivalries between opera and drama play a role in drama theories from the 17th to the 19th centuries, with both opera and drama sometimes being referred to as the actual drama. Since the 20th century, (fiction) film has increasingly been portrayed as the actual drama or, compared to the stage dramas, more topical drama (see film theory ).

In the 19th century , Gustav Freytag tried to replace the foremost social distinctions between the forms of dramatic representation with a more neutral demarcation between “ closed and open form ”. This again met a time of the work-immanent interpretation from around 1950, which endeavored to focus the theories of drama on "content". In the meantime, the historical theories of drama are again being tried to be understood as social and political expressions - with the aim of setting themselves apart or asserting their own validity.

In the theater theory of the last decades, the view that theater is not primarily seen as drama has gained influence (see performativity , post-dramatic theater ). The political and social significance of drama theories has been replaced by media theories and media criticism since the end of the 20th century .

In the continuation of Horace's rule-poetic approach , which up to Gottsched ( attempt at critical poetry before the Germans , 1730) and Freytag ( Die Technik des Dramas , 1863, see below) served to formulate normative laws for the drama text and the division into five Raised to the design principle of the drama, the classical division of the drama into five acts has become established, which was not initially mentioned in Aristotle's theory of drama. It was only at the beginning of the 20th century that there was more and more acceptance that normative poetics of rules, as developed in the tradition of Horace, did not do justice to the diverse forms of drama and that a descriptive theory of drama had to take its place based on the laws analytically determined of the individual drama.

Antiquity

Aristotle

Because the ancient philosopher Plato had generally depicted poetry as dangerous to the state ( Politeia ), his student Aristotle (384–322 BC ) tried to weaken this condemnation and the drama, which had a great (political and religious) value in the culture of Athens , to justify. The surviving parts of his Poetics (335 BC) deal with tragedy, which, in his opinion, brought better people to the stage than comedy. His remarks on comedy have not survived.

In contrast to the epic , the imitation of an action (“ mimesis ”) in the form of (direct) speech is to be offered and acted upon in the tragedy . It is not limited to portraying characters . It is not supposed to represent something static, but something moving, and this is played and not told. The scenic portrayal of a tragic act, in which great things are overthrown and low things are exalted, is supposed to trigger wailing (“ Eleos ”) and shuddering (“ Phobos ”) in the audience. This is not reprehensible for Aristotle, because the discharge of pent-up tension in the viewer through the release of strong emotions brings about a cleansing (“ catharsis ”) of strong affects and thus contributes to inner satisfaction, which Eudamonia . Theater can contribute to morality in this way instead of destroying it, as Plato claimed.

Furthermore, Aristotle calls for the units of time (course of action within a solar revolution, i.e. 24 hours) and action (not many subplots as in the epic) for the drama. According to Aristotle, a play should have a completed main story that has a beginning, a middle part and an end. Due to the stage conditions in the French Classical period , a unit of the location was added to these units in the 17th century (see “ Three Aristotelian Units ”), which does not go back to Aristotle.

Further terms that start from Aristotle's poetics are recognition at the climax of the action ( anagnorisis ) and the subsequent peripetia as a radical change between happiness and unhappiness.

Up until the 19th century, many authors endeavored to legitimize their dramas by conforming to the Aristotelian criteria. Up to the present day most of the theories of drama are based on the argument with the Aristotelian theory. However, there were and are numerous types of drama that neither correspond to the Aristotelian drama form nor refer to any other theories. Since the beginning of the 20th century, there has been an increasing number of experiments with the classical form of drama.

Horace

The Roman poet Horace (65–8 BC) talks about drama in his Ars poetica (in the Epistolae ad Pisones , from 13 BC). In its time it had lost the religious status it had held for the Greek city-states. Horace therefore considered a combination of the pleasant and the useful to be the meaning of drama. The Roman comedy was a generally popular form of entertainment, while tragedy was most likely present in the (closed) events of an upper class. Hence, Horace interprets the distinction between comedy and tragedy as a social one (between a lower and a higher species), while Aristotle speaks only of good and bad characters and actions. This resulted in considerable potential for conflict in modern times .

Middle Ages and Humanism

The writing De spectaculis by church father Tertullian (approx. 150–220) propagates the abolition of the theater as a phenomenon of decay of ancient culture, and during the loss of books in late antiquity , many ancient dramas and writings about the theater are destroyed. Up to Liutprand of Cremona (10th century) there was an extremely negative attitude towards the theater, especially by the Western Church. After this lengthy theater or at least lore free time developing in the Middle Ages from religious plays an urban folk theater without parallel theory.

The discipline and limitation of this tradition in the time of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation runs parallel to a humanistic theory development which, in contrast to the “irregular” folk theater, creates ideal images of a courtly and moral theater that is based on antiquity. In his Poetices libri septem , published in 1561, Julius Caesar Scaliger attempts a Renaissance-typical reconciliation of Platonic and Aristotelian poetics, which, in addition to influences on the Elizabethan theater or the Jesuit theater, culminates in French classical music . At the Paris court, the need arose to discuss rules derived from classical writings and their violations on the theater stage.

"Classic"

Boileau

The most important drama theorist of French classical music was Nicolas Boileau (1636–1711) with his verse L'art poétique (1669–1674). He formulated the demands of court society during absolutism on the drama, which in this context was made into the baroque regular drama . The courtly drama served the nobles as a school of behavior and as a subject for discussion about political events. Although Boileau refers to Aristotle and Horace, he modified their teachings greatly. Because the new French drama with Jean Racine or Pierre Corneille had to assert itself against the extremely popular English and Spanish drama of Shakespeare or Calderón , those authors are condemned by Boileau as irregular and unreasonable.

According to the needs of court society, the drama should be pleasant, not too emotional and not too instructive. The so-called class clause (that commoners were not suitable as tragic figures) or the bienséance (that nothing creature should be shown on the stage, such as fights, erotic contact, age or food) were hotly discussed . (However, with his tragedy Phèdre (1677), Jean Racine already violated the precept of the bienséance, the main character of which is a slave to his own nature.)

Johann Christoph Gottsched tried to convey these ideas to the German-speaking bourgeoisie in order to enable them to gain social status.

Corneille

Pierre Corneille (1606–1684) laid down his theoretical views in the Trois discours sur le poème dramatique (1660). His theory of drama is present in the German-speaking area because it was discussed in detail by Lessing. In view of the Christian criticism of ancient drama, which primarily criticized the mercilessness of ancient tragedy, it was important for Corneille to combine the theory of drama with Christian moral teaching and to show that there was no contradiction here.

Therefore, Corneille developed his theory of drama from preoccupation with the martyr drama of the Baroque . These martyrs' tragedies featured extremely polar figure constellations : On the one hand, the heroes were so sure of their salvation that they could not actually be plunged into a catastrophe . On the other hand, their opponents were so evil that the demise of the hero was foreseeable from the outset for the audience.

This problem led Corneille to think that the catharsis called for by Aristotle, by evoking fear and compassion, should be understood as "purification of passions". According to the (religious) understanding of time, passion is still something bad. So there couldn't be any tension or exuberance in the drama yet . The affects appear to warn of them. On the one hand, the hero can be a villain who spreads fear and horror through his passions. The viewer doesn't feel sorry for him, but can be afraid of his passions. On the other hand, the hero can also be a saint and martyr who, through virtue, is above all passions. This is pityed by the audience and at the same time admired for its grandeur . Thus Corneille expands the pair of affects “fear and pity” (a Christian translation of Phobos and Eleos), which is supposed to cleanse the viewer of his passions, by a third affect, namely admiration.

Diderot

In the years before the French Revolution , the privileges of the nobility reflected in the court theater were called into question. The highly regarded tragedy should no longer be reserved for the nobility, and the non-nobility should no longer be laughed at in comedy. Denis Diderot (1713–1784) drafted in his treatises Entretiens sur le fils naturel (1757) and De la poésie dramatique (1758) a theory of bourgeois tragedy (he himself calls it genre sérieux ), which had a great influence and in the German-speaking area, for example was taken over by Lessing.

Lessing

For Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781) the emancipation of drama from Christian moral doctrine no longer played the main role as it did for Corneille. He called for a bourgeois drama and gave a positively rated passion a greater priority on stage and in the auditorium. Lessing published his theory in the form of regularly appearing magazines, the Hamburgische Dramaturgie (1767) in connection with his work for the Hamburgische Entreprise .

Gustav Freytag later stated that Lessing had established a “national conception of the dramatically beautiful”. The concept of the national (as in national theater ) served to weaken or cover up the rivalries between citizens and nobles. For this reason, the socially critical component of Lessing's theory has been downplayed since the 19th century and a nationally “German” one emphasized, also in the cultural rivalry with France, which was still leading in dramatic production.

What was important to Lessing was the emancipation of bourgeois drama from court theater , which happened in his time. Therefore, the overcoming of the class clause was at the center of his efforts, which had developed since the Renaissance as a demarcation between “bad” or “ugly” bourgeois and “good” or “beautiful” aristocratic theater characters. He also criticizes the one-dimensional characters of the martyr drama defended by Corneille, which in his view, in their unshakable belief and certainty of salvation, by far exceed human abilities and make their martyrdom a matter of course.

Lessing calls for characters who do not appear stereotypical and polar, but rather combine the diversity of human emotions and thoughts, that is, according to their social position, are not only bad or only good. This makes their motives psychologically justifiable and understandable for the viewer. Instead of the relationship between man and God and between the classes , which was previously the focus, the psychological process is now decisive for the course of action.

“I do not ask whether the poet takes him (the audience) so far that he approves of this passion in the person playing, but whether he takes him so far that he feels these passions himself, and not just feels, feels someone else she? (...) The purpose of tragedy is this: it should expand our ability to feel pity. (...) The most compassionate person is the best person. "

- GE Lessing

This quote from Lessing's letter to Moses Mendelssohn shows that Lessing sees the task of tragedy in improving people by allowing them to “suffer”. The pity as a strong emotion that you could spend as Christian attitude was in the sensibility become socially acceptable and was celebrated as a public wines (see melodrama ). With this creature behavior one could revolt against courtly propriety .

Lessing assures comedy a similar task , which should help the audience to be able to perceive the ridiculous easily. The one who has this ability should thereby become a well-bred and decent person. Courtly comedy, on the other hand, reproached the citizens for its ridiculousness, so defining the ridiculous not as a general human but as a social characteristic.

Schiller

Like Goethe, Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) endeavored to create a new classic that should come closer to antiquity than the French classic . Tied speech , didactic goals and an avoidance of the “mean” in favor of the poetic were important to him. As a 25-year-old, he tried to win over the members of the Electoral Palatinate daughter of the German Society with his speech The Schaubühne regarded as a moral institution (1784) . Whether the strong emphasis on the doctrinal in this speech really corresponded to Schiller's views and to what extent it also applies to his later attitude is controversial.

In his letter to Goethe of November 24, 1797 , Schiller stated that he considered the bound speech in drama more worthy than prose . In his preface to The Bride of Messina ( On the use of the choir in tragedy , 1803) he defended the choir in modern stage plays and condemned the “poverty” of the French tragedies, which renounced it and the Aristotelian units in the “most common empirical sense “Understood.

Goethe

For Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) the bourgeois drama had become a reality. The touring stages had produced an acceptable “German” acting culture, and there were now a few significant German-speaking authors. Goethe no longer had to defend himself so much against the church and the nobility or against the Italian opera and the French drama, but tried to soften the contrasts. With the Weimar Classic, for example, he tried to give the ancient figures, actions and courtly rules of conduct, which came from the theater of the French Classic , a simplicity that at least he himself felt as "natural" (that is, not socially differentiating). The Romanesque and German culture as well as the bourgeoisie and the nobility should be reconciled.

However, Goethe turned away from the rule drama demanded by Aristotle to Lessing in various variants . He wanted to break the shackles of formal units and follow the example of William Shakespeare , whom he described as a kind of naive playwright ( Shakespeare and no end , 1813). When Goethe brought his ancient figures to the small Weimar court theater , the theater world had almost completely turned away from the classicist material and rules of declamation, which only became modern again towards the end of the 19th century.

19th century

Friday

In the era of reaction , a socio-political drama theory was hardly possible. Gustav Freytag (1816–1895) understood drama theory as instructions for use and a blueprint for plays. His ideal of a unified, closed he brought drama built expressly with the national unity of the Germans in the context (the one with the Empire realized 1871).

His book Die Technik des Dramas (1863) can be used as a textbook for dramatists and therefore had a great influence. In the period of historicism, Freytag tried to tie in with the ancient and classicist modern drama theories and devised a highly schematic and therefore particularly easy-to-understand conception of "drama". Above all, he shaped the idea of ​​the "pyramidal structure" of the plot. He presented the five-act drama as a model and described the sequence of acts as a course of tension: I. Exposition, II. Rising action with an exciting moment, III. Climax and Peripetie, IV. Falling action with retarding moment, V. Catastrophe.

Whether Freytag's portrayal is actually exemplary and how far it applies to ancient or contemporary models has been the subject of controversial discussion.

wagner

In the Italian tradition since around 1600, opera was more or less synonymous with drama. At times it was able to displace the drama outside of Italy. After 1800, however, the Italian opera lost its influence. This is the starting point of Richard Wagner's (1813–1883) theory of drama, which he presented in Opera and Drama (1852) and in other writings such as The Work of Art of the Future . In contrast to Freytag, Wagner was active as a revolutionary who had to struggle with numerous political difficulties after the failure of the March Revolution in 1848. The concept of a total work of art he designed was for him a model of society, as a “ cooperative ” of equals and like-minded people, which was supposed to oppose the ongoing feudal society.

Wagner understood opera as well as drama as unsuccessful revivals of ancient drama. On the other hand, he presents his own operas as the actual renewed drama, in which the music and above all the choir should find a role corresponding to the Greek tragedy. He turned the choir into a melodramatic commentary orchestra. Friedrich Nietzsche supported him with his work The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music (1872). The fact that Wagner wanted to renew the religious status of the Athenian drama with his works was the subject of fierce criticism.

20th century

Brecht

Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) opposed naturalism with his theory of drama , which he perceived as the epitome of a bourgeois theater of illusions that wanted to turn a blind eye to current social and political events. He saw the Aristotelian drama theory close to the empathy theory , which was popular at the end of the 19th century, and wanted to address it. His “non-Aristotelian theater” turns less against Aristotle himself than against his interpretations in the aesthetics of the time .

Brecht's Epic Theater is a contradiction in terms because the narrative epic is the opposite of the drama. However, he makes the contradiction fruitful by forbidding the actors from illusionistic imitation and instead demanding their distance from the portrayed. They should constantly consider whether the way their characters act corresponds to their (social) sense of responsibility. The playwright promotes this through alienation effects such as the actors stepping out of the plot.

Dürrenmatt

Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–1990) was exposed to the Second World War and the atomic bomb . In his drama-theoretical texts ( Theaterprobleme , 1955) he again devotes himself to the contrast between tragedy and comedy, deals with Brecht's epic theater , advocates the distance between the actor and the audience and the action, but contradicts the teaching content of the drama emphasized by Brecht.

For Dürrenmatt, there are no more tragedies, since the noble or general no longer has the power to represent, because "the tragic heroes are without names". Today's world can only be reproduced with traditional comedy staff, with the “little slider”, the “chancellery” or the “police officer”. Even the clear assignment of blame for the tragedy is no longer possible: "Everyone is unable to help it and did not want it." From this he concludes: "We only get comedy" - but "we can achieve the tragic from comedy". The way to do this is the grotesque .

Esslin

→ Main article: Absurd theater

The numerous currents of modern drama, which had developed from the avant-garde after 1900 and turned against both naturalism and an educational, meaningful and thus authoritarian theater, were successfully referred to by Martin Esslin (1918–2002) as Das Theater of the absurd (1961). His theory of drama is a scientific description of the cultural-historical and philosophical currents behind authors such as Eugène Ionesco and Samuel Beckett .

Structuralist approaches

The structuralist approaches up into the 1970s had some influence on literary and linguistics, but largely ignored the drama. The importance of dramaturges trained in literary studies in German-speaking theater has, however, incorporated structuralist analyzes of drama texts into theater practice, and individual literary scholars such as the Slavist Herta Schmid have endeavored to develop a “structuralist drama theory”. An attempt is made to analyze the structure of the drama in more detail in an act of close reading. Aspects of the text of the drama come to the fore, which are ignored in a "content" -oriented approach; different forms of editions are asked about their meaning, as are paratexts (e.g. mottos or dedications ).

Turning away from drama as text

In order to do justice to the plurimedial character of the drama, theatrical semiotics has increasingly directed the focus on the performance situation, especially since the early 1980s . Based on a doctrine of signs , the theatrical semiotics move the physical reality of the performance into the center of their consideration. This materializes, for example, in gestures , costumes or choreographies and is then understood in a kind of semiotic exegesis as an interpretable structure of characters or text. This type of performance analysis is moving into more recent approaches that deal more generally with an “ aesthetics of the performative ” ( Fischer-Lichte ).

In more recent approaches, as in theatrical semiotics concepts, the position is no longer held that the theatrical signs are necessarily bearers of meaning . However, they emphasize the dynamics and contingencies of performance that can not be planned in all its aspects and the audience reactions or the representations of actors depends. The actors not only play their respective roles , but are "perceived in their specific physicality as players". The meaning of the drama arises accordingly from an "interplay of text and physical play", that is, from both the planned and the unplanned.

The preoccupation with the aesthetics of the performative also expands the analytical view trained on drama to include theatrical events beyond the theater. For example, forms of everyday behavior based on the approaches of the sociologist Erving Goffman are viewed as stagings and analyzed for their theatricality.

The examination of “ post-dramatic theater ” is also leaving the groundwork of classical drama theory by increasingly turning to productions that are no longer based on a text substrate - for example performance art . The theoretical drama discussion towards the end of the 20th century is characterized by an increasing turn away from text analysis and a turn towards performance analysis.

literature

• Ralf Hertel: Drama Theory . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag , Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66.
• Klaus Lazarowicz (Ed.): Texts on the theory of theater, Reclam, Ditzingen 1991, ISBN 3-15-008736-8 .
• Uwe Spörl: Basic concepts of drama . In: Uwe Spörl: Basic concepts of drama . Schöningh Verlag , Paderborn u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-8252-2485-6 , pp. 202-254.
• Ulrich Staehle (Ed.): Theory of Drama. Reclam, Ditzingen 1986, ISBN 3-15-009503-4 .
• Manfred Pfister: The drama. Theory and analysis. 11th edition. Munich 2001, ISBN 3-8252-0580-0 .
• Gottfried Fischborn: Theatricality - Dramaturgy - Dramatization. In: the same: political culture and theatricality. Frankfurt / M. 2012, ISBN 978-3-631-63251-2 .
• Peter Langemeyer (Ed.): Theory of Drama. Texts from the baroque to the present . Reclam, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-018899-6 .
• Bernhard Asmuth : Introduction to Drama Analysis . 8th, updated and expanded edition. Metzler, Stuttgart 2016, ISBN 978-3-476-18188-6 .
• Bernhard Asmuth: Drama Theory . In: Walter Killy (Ed.): Literaturlexikon . Vol. 13. Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag, Gütersloh / Munich 1992, pp. 186–192, ISBN 3-570-04713-X .

Individual evidence

1. ^ Ralf Hertel: Drama Theory . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag , Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here p. 63.
2. ^ Ralf Hertel: Drama Theory . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag , Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63–66, here p. 63. See also Uwe Spörl: Grundbegriffe der Dramatik . In: Uwe Spörl: Basic concepts of drama . Schöningh Verlag , Paderborn u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-8252-2485-6 , pp. 202-254, here pp. 202f.
3. ^ Ralf Hertel: Drama Theory . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here p. 63f. See also Uwe Spörl: Basic concepts of drama . In: Uwe Spörl: Basislexikon Literaturwissenschaft . Schöningh Verlag , Paderborn u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-8252-2485-6 , pp. 202-254, here pp. 203f.
4. ^ Ralf Hertel: Drama Theory . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here pp. 64f.
5. ^ Ralf Hertel: Drama Theory . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here pp. 64f.
6. ^ Ralf Hertel: Drama Theory . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here p. 64.
7. ^ Peter Szondi : Theory of Modern Drama , edition Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt 1963.
8. ^ Günter Berger: The aftermath of the poetics of JC Scaliger on the drama theory of the Doctrine classique, Bielefeld, Diss. Masch. 1975.
9. ↑ Catharsis. In: Word growth. Retrieved February 25, 2019 . 
10. ↑ Linda Kim Wegener: The drama in German lessons. 2008, accessed March 10, 2019 . 
11. ↑ Gustav Freytag: Technik des Dramas , Leipzig: Hirzel 1863, p. 5.
12. ^ GE Lessing, M. Mendelssohn, F. Nicolai: Correspondence about the tragedy. ed. and commented by Jochen Schulte-Sasse. Winkler, Munich 1972, ISBN 3-538-07602-2 , pp. 53-56.
13. ↑ See more detailed Ralf Hertel: Dramentheorie . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here pp. 64f.
14. ↑ Aloysius van Kesteren, Herta Schmid (Ed.): Moderne Dramentheorie, Scriptor Verlag, Kronberg 1975, p. 44.
15. ↑ Herta Schmid: structuralist drama theory. Semantic analysis of Cechow's "Ivanov" and "Der Kirschgarten", Scriptor Verlag, Kronberg 1973.
16. ↑ See more detailed Ralf Hertel: Dramentheorie . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here pp. 65f.
17. ↑ See more detailed Ralf Hertel: Dramentheorie . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here pp. 65f.
18. ↑ See more detailed Ralf Hertel: Dramentheorie . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here p. 66.
19. ↑ See Ralf Hertel: Dramentheorie . In: Gerhard Lauer, Christine Ruhrberg (Hrsg.): Lexicon literary studies · Hundred basic terms . Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010810-9 , pp. 63-66, here p. 66.