Anglo-Spanish War (1625-1630)

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Anglo-Spanish War (1625-1630)
Painting from 1634 showing the English expedition to Cadiz in 1625
Don Fernando Girón , governor of Cadiz, gives orders to defend the city against an Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1625; Painting by Francisco de Zurbarán , 1634.
date October 22nd July / November 1, 1625 greg. until November 5th jul. / November 15, 1630 greg.
place Spain , Netherlands , Caribbean
output Contractual agreement
Peace treaty Peace of Madrid
Parties to the conflict

Spain 1506Spain Spain

England kingdomKingdom of England England

The Anglo-Spanish War was a military conflict between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Spain from 1625 to 1630, within the larger framework of the Eighty Years and Thirty Years' War, respectively . The early climax of the fighting was an English company against the Spanish port of Cadiz at the beginning of the conflict. A lack of financial reserves and the increasing involvement of England in the French Huguenot riots, as well as Spain's concentration on the simultaneous fight against the Netherlands, led to the fighting subsiding . These were limited to actions by privateers and the action of the Spaniards against the English settlements in the Caribbean . The war ended on November 15, 1630 greg. with the conclusion of the Peace of Madrid and the restoration of the status quo ante .

prehistory

Portrait of King James I of England
King James I, ruler of England, Scotland and Ireland until 1625; unknown painter

The Anglo-Spanish conflict had its origin in the involvement of both countries in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). On August 26, 1619, Elector Frederick V of the Palatinate (1596–1632), son-in-law of King James I of England , was elected King of Bohemia by the Bohemian estates rebelling against the Habsburgs . After the defeat in the Battle of White Mountain on November 8, 1620 and the subsequent occupation of his home country by Habsburg-Spanish troops in the following year, he was on the run. He therefore campaigned among the Protestant powers for himself and his cause against the Catholic Spaniards and the emperor for support. At this point in time, smaller contingents of English mercenaries had already taken part in the fighting in the Palatinate. In the Kingdom of England , the House of Commons had already declared its support for the defense of the Protestant faith in Germany in June 1621 and wanted an alliance with the United Provinces of the Netherlands . This would also have been logical insofar as England had been allied with the Protestant Union since 1612 . However, King James I tried to live up to his reputation as a peacekeeper and mediator, which he had since mediating in the Kalmark War ( 1613) and in the Jülich-Klevian succession dispute (1614). In order to prevent the religious war from escalating and to put himself in an arbitration position, he wanted to lean on Spain and mediate between the religious parties. The core of this policy were plans for a marriage between his son and heir Prince Charles and Maria Anna of Spain (1606–1646) , the sister of the Spanish King Philip IV - the so-called "Spanish Match". Such a connection would also have thwarted a Franco-Spanish rapprochement that was disadvantageous for England, upgraded the House of Stuart and restored the ailing state finances with up to £ 600,000 dowry (purchasing power around 2012 ≈ £ 90.3 million). On the other hand, this option was unpopular in Protestant England, where it was feared that the ruler would convert, which would be accompanied by similar religious excesses as once under Queen Mary I Tudor .

Although a draft marriage contract already existed in 1618, the question only became urgent with the development of the Thirty Years' War. In order to negotiate from a position of strength, James I asked Parliament in 1621 for funds for military armaments. This made the approval subject to the condition that the Catholic-Spanish marriage project be dropped. The king, who did not tolerate interference in foreign policy issues, immediately dissolved the meeting. Without funds, however, he could hardly put pressure on the Spanish government. In the summer of 1622, James I initiated a peace conference in Brussels , but since the Catholic powers had just achieved numerous military successes, their willingness to negotiate was low. In addition, Spain had no interest in endangering its steadfast position in the Rhineland by evacuating the Electoral Palatinate , through which numerous supplies from the Mediterranean were transported to the Spanish troops in the Netherlands. The conference was therefore canceled at the end of the year. Negotiations about a possible marriage were still ongoing. The Spanish government demanded nothing less than equality for Catholics in England. In August 1622, James I therefore ordered the laws no longer to be used for their persecution and merely prohibited political content in sermons. His popularity reached a low point. Probably with the intention of breaking through the holding back position of the Spaniards and finally being able to show results, Prince Charles and the king's closest adviser, Lord Buckingham (1592–1628), traveled to Madrid in February 1623 . There they demanded the immediate conclusion of a marriage contract and the evacuation of the Palatinate territories. For its part, the Spanish government demanded the conversion of the prince and Friedrich V's son to Catholicism . This was in all respects unacceptable to England and amounted to a rejection. The prince and Buckingham reached their homeland on October 5th, 1623. Both felt humiliated by the treatment in Spain and were aware that they had lost a significant amount of respect among the English Protestants as a result of this trip.

Decision to go to war

Portrait of the Dukes of Buckingham
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham; Painting by Peter Paul Rubens , 1625

After their return in October 1623, Charles and Buckingham ushered in what their contemporaries referred to as the "Blessed Revolution" - a fundamental change in England's policy, which had previously been friendly to Spain, since 1604. This did not happen immediately because the old king and a significant part of the Council of State held still firmly committed to a peaceful settlement with Spain. When Philip IV of Spain offered to hand over the Palatinate in January 1624 if the marriage were to take place, Charles refused to comply. Instead, he and Buckingham got members of the Council of State on their side. Many ministers followed because it was clear that Charles would soon be king. In parliament, which met from February to May 1624, succeeded in persuading the deputies to break all treaties with Spain and to approve some funds for a war. However, it remained open at first against whom this should be led - against Spain or directly against the emperor to recapture the Palatinate. The idea of ​​war was popular in itself. The MPs were counting on him and had therefore granted £ 300,000. However, there was no consensus on the nature of this war, as the parliamentarians preferred a cheap campaign against the wealthy Spanish colonies that served their commercial interests.

While the popularity of the duo Charles / Buckingham was particularly high in the summer of 1624, the ensuing inaction soon resulted in public dissatisfaction, as the old King James continued to oppose the war party's efforts to secure his son. For him, the Palatinate and not Spain was still the focus. He therefore tried to initiate an anti-Habsburg alliance with France, the core of which was to be the marriage of his son to a French princess. In return he made great concessions, such as the suspension of the persecution of Catholics in England and the support of the French crown against the rebellious Huguenots . All of these measures were deeply controversial among the English public. The money approved by Parliament was used by James to equip an expedition under the mercenary leader Peter Ernst II von Mansfeld , whose goal was to be the Palatinate. However, France still shied away from confrontation with Spain and denied the English troops the right to march through. The Mansfeld troops were therefore shipped to the United Netherlands in January 1625, where they were, however, poorly supplied. Only a few weeks later, of the 12,000–15,000 men, only 5,000 were left - the rest had deserted, fell ill or died. James I's policies during these months were expensive and unpopular, without, however, leading to any advantages.

Portrait of the Crown Prince and later King Charles I.
Charles, Crown Prince and King of England since 1625; Painting by Daniel Mytens , around 1624

James I finally died on March 27, 1625 and his son ascended the throne as King Charles I. As early as April 9, he convened a commission under the Duke of Buckingham, which was supposed to advise on the country's foreign policy. The main points were the relationship with Spain, an alliance with France and ways to restore the Palatinate, possibly with Dutch help. A second commission, which was also chaired by Buckingham, discussed all of the country's military measures almost simultaneously. At least the alliance with France came a big step closer with the marriage of Charles to Henrietta Maria of France in May 1625. But the Mansfeld troops were still prevented from marching through France.

Charles now made foreign policy much more aggressive. He ordered the formation of 10,000 soldiers, supported Christian IV of Denmark against the Emperor with £ 30,000 and subordinated the Mansfeld troops to the United Provinces so that they could be used in the war against Spain. At the end of April, Charles instructed the Admiralty to issue letters of lading that would allow ships owned by the Spanish Netherlands to be ambushed. In internal memoranda, the new king explicitly spoke of an imminent war against Spain. In order to receive the financial means for it, he convened the parliament and asked there in June 1625 for the approval of funds. After 12 days of deliberation, the assembly granted £ 160,000, which was not enough to fund a war. Now that the plague had broken out in London , Charles called another meeting in Oxford , where he stated that at least £ 800,000 would be needed. For their part, however, the MPs called for stricter persecution of Catholics in the kingdom and for the Duke of Buckingham to be restricted. Although Charles gave assurances that he would deal with the complaints at a subsequent session in the winter if the MPs gave him the necessary funds, he received no further funding. He therefore dissolved parliament. Buckingham now suggested using Henrietta Maria's dowry and a royal bond to equip a first expedition. She was then to plunder the Spanish coast, intercept the silver fleet and in this way secure the financing of the war. On September 18, 1625, the Treaty of Southampton with the United Provinces could be concluded. In it, both sides committed themselves to a joint expedition against Spain. The Netherlands was to provide 22 warships for this and with 25 more ships to keep the pirates in Dunkirk, Spain in check, while England was to send its main forces into Spanish waters.

course

Portrait of Sir Edward Cecil
Sir Edward Cecil, Commander in Chief of the British Cadiz Expedition; Painting by Michiel Janszoon van Miereveldt

After the attack on Spain had been decided, the military preparations began. The formation of land troops was regulated by the municipalities. Each of them had to provide a certain contingent of recruits, but the principles according to which they were selected was left to the communities. As a result, the majority of the more than 10,000 recruits who were concentrated in Dorset and Devon had been forced into military service against their will, e.g. B. had a quarrel with the village chief or were considered undesirable elements in their communities. When visiting a regiment of 2,000 men, 200 men were physically disabled, 24 seriously ill, 26 over 60 years of age, 4 blind, one mentally ill and many others with physical disabilities. Since the men had hardly any money, but were also poorly provided for, there were soon attacks on the civilian population, who were robbed of food and clothing. Ultimately, the soldiers had to have their weapons taken from them in order to avert further attacks. On the other hand, no more military training could take place in this way. The ships that were supposed to transport this army were also in poor condition. A total of 12 warships of the Royal Navy and 73 armed merchants and transport ships could be mobilized, but these were often outdated and slow. Many of them had already fought against the Spanish Armada in 1588 . At the beginning of October 1625 there were a total of 5952 sailors and 10,448 soldiers on these ships.

The qualifications of the commander-in-chief-designate was also questionable. The Duke of Buckingham passed over the honored veteran Admiral Sir Robert Mansell and instead appointed some of his loyal followers. At the head of the expedition should be Sir Edward Cecil , who had at least gained experience as regimental commander in the Netherlands. With the rest of the commanders of each squadron, such as the Earl of Essex , even this kind of experience was limited. In addition, none of the six key senior officers had ever commanded maritime forces. The completely inadequate work of the inexperienced quartermaster , who did not adequately equip the ships, should be particularly disadvantageous . In addition, Sir Cecil received no clear orders. He was only supposed to harm the Spaniards, raid rich cities and perhaps intercept the Spanish silver fleet . The commander in chief therefore tried to make his decisions through a council of war . But even without clear instructions it was soon known that the city of Cádiz , which had been looted several times by English troops, was to be the destination of the expedition. The secrecy failed completely.

Cadiz expedition

Contemporary colored engraving from the city of Cádiz, 1640

The city of Cádiz had around 14,000 inhabitants in 1625. She enjoyed the royal privilege of trading in the West Indies and was therefore the target of the annual silver fleet . An English fleet under Francis Drake had raided the port as early as 1587, and in 1596 the city was again taken and sacked by English troops. After these experiences from the Anglo-Spanish War between 1586 and 1604 , the Spaniards reinforced their fortifications at the beginning of the 17th century.

The fleet left Plymouth on October 8, 1625 and met the Dutch squadron of 22 warships under William of Nassau in the English Channel . Days later a series of frictions began . The ship "Lion" had too many leaks and had to turn back. Many other ships had been equipped incompetently, so that the provisions began to run out on the third day at sea and the rations had to be cut. The flagship was so damaged during a storm that it could only be kept afloat by pumping out constantly. After the weather had improved, Sir Cecil convened a council of war on October 20 to review the damage. It turned out that the supply was worse than expected, with drinking water contaminated and even gunpowder wet. Contact with the Earl of Essex's squadron was lost during the storms . When an association without a flag was finally discovered near the Spanish coast, Sir Cecil opened the hunt for this supposedly fleeing part of the Spanish silver fleet. However, it later turned out that it was the lost squadron. Despite all the difficulties, the Anglo-Dutch federation reached Cadiz on November 1st.

News of the preparation of an Anglo-Dutch expedition caused some confusion in Madrid. It was feared that opposing troops would be transported into the Mediterranean, where Genoa, Sicily or Naples were possible targets. To the north of Genoa, Spain was already fighting against the Duke of Savoy and in Valtellina against the French. These theaters of war were conceivable targets. On the Spanish side, aided by the poor English secrecy, an attack on the city of Cadiz was expected and it was therefore well stocked with provisions and troops. However, when the English did not show up for the whole summer and autumn approached, the troops were moved to quarters that were spread all over Andalusia . They were under the command of Juan Manuel Pérez de Guzmán y Gómez de Silva , the son of the admiral who had led the Spanish Armada against England in 1588 . In Cádiz, where the aged governor Don Fernando Girón was in command, only 300 men remained.

Detail from a painting showing the bombing of Fort Puntal
Anglo-Dutch ships in the bombardment of Fort Puntal; Detail from a painting by Francisco de Zurbarán , 1634.
Map of the Bay of Cadiz. In the north is Santa María, south of the city of Cádiz the Castillo Puntal, in the east the royal port (Puerto Real)

First, Cecil sent Essex's squadron to the harbor to look for a suitable anchorage. Essex discovered 12 galleons and about 15 galleys there and attacked them immediately. The bulk of the English fleet soon reached the bay, creating an overwhelming excess. The Spaniards therefore withdrew to a northern tributary. Sir Cecil initially planned to pursue the Spanish ships immediately; on the other hand, several captains raised concerns in a council of war that was arranged at short notice: The Spaniards were stuck in the river anyway and could not escape, which is why their pursuit was not a priority. An English trader from Cádiz meanwhile informed Cecil that the city was sparsely occupied and that it could easily be taken if you were quick. On the other hand, the council of war insisted that Fort Puntal , which dominated the bay, must first be taken. The attack on the fort began at dusk and was to be carried out by 20 English shallow-draft merchant ships and 5 Dutch warships. However, the merchant ship captains did not consider risking their private ships and refused to participate in the attack. The Dutch suffered heavy casualties from the fort's eight heavy cannons on their advance alone, and one of their ships ran aground. After an angry protest from the Dutch admiral, Essex's squadron supported the attack, but the traders still refused. When they finally got involved in the exchange of fire, their volleys were too deep and one shot even went through the stern of Essex's flagship. The following day soldiers of the regiment under Sir John Burgh went ashore and took Puntal , but had to find that the approximately 2,000 cannon shots had caused little damage. The Spanish garrison of 120 men under Capitan Francisco Bustamante was granted free retreat. The entire operation had taken 24 hours, leaving the Spaniards time to take countermeasures. In the meantime, reinforcements had been organized by Pérez and brought into the city with the help of galleys, so that the governor had around 4,000 soldiers by the evening of the day. Pérez distributed further reinforcements in the surrounding smaller coastal towns in order to be prepared for further English landings.

Now the landing of all the English troops began. Sir Cecil decided to take the Suazo Bridge in order to secure his attack on Cadiz in the rear. There 2,300 Spanish soldiers with seven cannons under Luis Portocarrero were deployed. Around 8,000 English soldiers therefore marched across the Isla de León towards the bridge. However, one regiment had not taken any provisions off board and had to turn back. In general there was a lack of food and water. When the camp was set up in the evening, the wine stores of the Spanish Navy were discovered in some houses. Cecil approved the breaking of one barrel per regiment, but the little food and the great warmth soon turned into a real binge, with the officers completely losing control of their men. Soon Sir Cecil's bodyguard had to fire into the crowd as people attacked their commander. The following morning Sir Cecil withdrew with the bulk of the troops towards Puntal . Many drunken soldiers had to be left behind. When the Spaniards advanced later, they fell into the hands of about 2000 English without a fight.

Meanwhile, the Spanish Navy also became active. She sank four Hulks at the entrance of the river, so that if the fleet attacked, only one ship at a time could pass. This made an attack practically impossible. Sir Cecil therefore decided to withdraw generally. However, the disorder on the beach was so great that it took the soldiers all night to embark again. Until then, the soldiers stayed in the rain and hardly looked after outdoors. The English did not leave the Bay of Cadiz until the following day.

Sir Cecil was now cruising off the Spanish coast and trying to intercept the silver fleet. The Spaniards, who had already been warned, took a more southerly route along the North African Atlantic coast and thus avoided a collision. On November 14, 1625, Sir Cecil decided to return to England, as the condition of his ships, men and supplies made it impossible to stay at sea for a long time. The understaffing of the ship's crews posed a major problem, as many seafarers had become ill due to the poor food situation. The plague also broke out on some ships . Soon the crews of some ships were so decimated that their ships could no longer be steered through the autumn storms to England. Sir Cecil's “solution” worsened the situation: he ordered that each unaffected ship should hand over two healthy men to the decimated crews - in exchange for two sick seamen each. With this measure, the plague was spread across the entire fleet within a very short time. In the storms that followed, almost the entire association was scattered. Individually or in small groups, the survivors headed for the Irish or southern English coast. In some ships there were no longer enough people to man a longboat or operate the pumps. So of the 150-man crew of the Anne Royal , the flagship, only 20 men were left when she arrived in Kinsale on December 11, 1625 . It was not until January 28, 1626 that the ship and his crew were ready to sail to England with Sir Cecil on board, where it did not arrive until February 28. Because of their poor health, dozens of sailors died in the English coastal cities in the weeks that followed, where the plague caused further losses.

The House of Commons and Secretary to the Lord of the Admiralty Sir John Glanville wrote a manuscript about the events of the expedition, which soon circulated in political circles under the title "Voyage to Cadiz" and was of particular interest to the opponents of the government. On March 6, 1626, the Secretary of State Sir Edward Conway , the Earl of Essex and nine other subordinates charged Cecil before the Privy Council . They were all supporters of the Dukes of Buckingham and had little military experience, while the professional soldiers remained loyal to Sir Cecil and, like the majority of the House of Commons, saw Buckingham as the culprit. But Charles I took Sir Cecil under protection. Even more: he confirmed his title as Viscount Wimbledon and appointed him Lord Lieutenant of Surrey .

Further course of the war in Europe

Painting showing the siege of Breda in 1624/25
Siege of Breda by the Spaniards - an English contingent of troops was involved in the relief attempt in 1625; Painting by Pieter Snayers

Although both states remained at war for the next five years, the fighting after the failed Cádiz expedition, as a Spanish historian wrote, was more symbolic than real. Spain needed its resources to fight the United Provinces of the Netherlands and to support the emperor in the empire. So the war was mainly fought against English trade by the Spanish privateers from Dunkirk . In the winter of 1625/26 they operated in groups of two to three fast frigates and brought in dozens of English prizes . Between Edinburgh and Falmouth they used the opposing fishing and coastal shipping to. The Royal Navy found no remedy for this threat, and so around 300 ships were lost in the following years, which was 15 to 20% of the English merchant navy. In addition, the lucrative sales markets on the Iberian Peninsula and in the Mediterranean were no longer available. The associated economic decline, especially in the English port cities, soon led to high unemployment and social unrest. The depressed mood was heightened by the outbreak of a plague epidemic that claimed 34,417 lives in London in the summer of 1625 alone.

Charles I tried to continue the war by joining a broad Protestant coalition against the Habsburgs. This Hague Alliance , concluded on December 19, 1625, consisted of the Netherlands, Denmark and England. Among other things, Charles I undertook to pay subsidies to King Christian IV of Denmark, who in return was to recapture the Palatinate. But for these plans as well as for the entire further warfare Charles I needed money, which he u. a. hoped to get through a pirate war against Spanish ships. He therefore published another “Proclamation on December 31, 1625, declaring that all ships carrying grain or food or any form of war goods for or to the King of Spain or one of his subjects may and should be taken as a legitimate prize . "

At the same time, it was foreseeable that the English king would have to convene parliament again to demand more money to finance the war. The Duke of Buckingham was considered by the British public to be the cause of these abuses, and in fact, as Lord Admiral, he undoubtedly bore part of the responsibility. So it was hardly surprising that as soon as Parliament opened in February 1626, harsh criticism of his leadership was discharged. Sir John Eliot from Newport had seen the disastrous consequences of the Cadiz expedition with his own eyes and shouted in a speech to the House of Commons: “Our honor is ruined, our ships sunk, our men slain, but not by the sword, not by the enemy and not by chance, but by those whom we [should] trust. ”While Charles I was demanding money to continue the war, the MPs in March 1626 were only willing to grant the £ 300,000 if the King were to take up their domestic affairs Claims would be received. Charles did not want to commit himself, however. In May, the MPs finally initiated proceedings against the Duke of Buckingham, whereupon Charles dissolved Parliament in June.

The prospects for King Charles's allies worsened as the year progressed. The defeat in the Battle of Lutter (August 27, 1626) put an end to hopes of regaining the Electoral Palatinate through the Danish ally. From the spring of 1626, the Royal Navy under Captain Sir John Pennington had led the pirate war against the Spanish ships in the English Channel. Although this soon brought in £ 50,000 for the crown, since numerous French ships had also been attacked, this soon led to an armed conflict with France. The refusal of Cardinal Richelieu , the leading minister in France, to take direct action against Spain and to allow English troops to march through to the Electoral Palatinate, as well as the expulsion of the court of the English queen, who came from France, put additional strain on the relationship. When the Duke of Buckingham began to intrigue against Richelieu and support the French Huguenots , the open break in February 1627 had become inevitable. France then came to an agreement with Spain on March 20, 1627. Among other things, this envisaged the position of 80 warships and the necessary equipment for an invasion of the British Isles by the two contracting parties.

Charles I found himself embroiled in a conflict with both Spain and France with little financial means. He decided to concentrate on supporting the Huguenots in the war against the French crown (see Anglo-French War ), which is why the fighting against Spain now came to a complete standstill. Buckingham in particular promoted this policy, as it gave him the opportunity to distinguish himself as a champion of the Protestant faith and at the same time to wage an extremely “popular war”.

Caribbean expedition

Painting showing the Spanish conquest of St. Kitts in 1629
The conquest of St. Kitts in 1629 - Don Fadrique de Toledo in the foreground ; Painting by Felix Castello , 1634
Map for the conquest of St. Kitts and Nevis
Map of the capture of the islands of St. Kitts and Nevis by Spanish troops in 1629

The European conflict initially had little impact on developments overseas, as both parties had to use their resources in the conflicts on the mainland. As early as January 1624, a small English expedition had established settlements on the island of St. Kitts in the Caribbean , although these islands were claimed by Spain. Shortly afterwards, French colonists also joined them, and local cooperation between the two nations against the Caribs developed . As early as 1625/26, the island served a French brigantine as a refuge and base. Soon after, the two fortifications Fort Charles and Fort Pointe de Sable were created. Even during the war between their home countries in Europe, Anglo-French cooperation continued on St. Kitts. Only after the conclusion of the peace treaty between England and France in Europe was there a brief firefight in July 1629 over the territorial division of the island. In the meantime, English settlers had founded a first settlement on the neighboring island of Nevis in 1628 .

Spain wanted to prevent England from establishing itself in the Caribbean. An expedition to destroy the new English colonies was therefore planned for 1629. Therefore, two Spanish fleets arrived in the autumn. The first consisted of seven galleons and three other ships under Admiral Fadrique de Toledo and his deputy Vice-Admiral Antonio de Oquendo . The second fleet consisted of ten galleons under Admiral Martín de Vallecilla. She was later to escort the annual silver fleet. On September 16, 1629 four galleons raided the port of Nevis and captured eight English merchant ships there. Two more escaped and warned St. Kitts of the impending attack. During the battle between the Spanish ships and the English battery on Pelican Point, the "Jesus María" ran aground and received numerous hits. So Spanish troops went ashore and stormed the battery. 22 Englishmen were killed and many more were chased into the jungle. On the morning of September 18, 1629, John Hilton, brother of the absent Governor Anthony Hilten , surrendered , and all English buildings on the island were destroyed.

After being stopped by a storm, Admiral de Toledo's fleet appeared in front of St. Kitts and first shelled the French Fort Basseterre . After that, troops landed on a beach near Fort Charles . Although the English fended off the first attacks in a prepared trench system, thanks to their numerical superiority, the Spanish finally broke into the English defense. The French commander Du Roissey then evacuated 400 French settlers from the island. Even as the Spaniard here were, Fort Charles to grind , surrendered the remaining British and French settlers on St. Kitts. The expedition was a great Spanish success: 129 cannons, 42 mortars, 1,350 muskets, ammunition, 3,100 prisoners and half a dozen prizes had fallen into Admiral de Toledo's hands. In the weeks that followed, de Toledo took action against smaller Anglo-French settlements, for example on Hispaniola . When he left St. Kitts and Nevis on October 4, 1629, he brought 800 Catholic settlers to Cartagena , while the 2,300 others were brought back to Europe on Spanish ships. However, no Spanish garrison was left behind, so the English could soon return. From spring 1630 they intensified their colonization efforts in the Caribbean (especially in the Bahamas ), with Tortuga serving as their base for a long time.

Peace treaty

A series of events in Europe paved the way for a settlement of the Anglo-Spanish conflict. In December 1627 the Duke of Mantua died , and soon a Franco-Spanish conflict (see Mantuan War of Succession ) began to emerge over the question of his succession, in which each power supported a different favorite. This not only broke the short-lived Franco-Spanish alliance, but rather the Spanish government tried to reach an agreement with England that allowed it to free its back. This turned out to be a stroke of luck for England, because in fact the Conde de Olivares , chief minister in Spain, had toyed with the idea of ​​an invasion of the British Isles in Ireland or Scotland in the course of the Franco-Spanish alliance of spring 1627 . In addition, the Duke of Buckingham was murdered in August 1628. New foreign policy adviser of the king was Sir Dudley Carleton , who unlike his predecessor pursued hardly own interests. Charles I was only able to finance the expeditions against France at great cost. Among other things, he had sold crown goods and jewels, had valuable cutlery melted down, and ordered the collection of forced loans. Nevertheless, this war had also proven to be a disaster. On April 24, 1629 France and England signed the Peace of Susa ; he made no profit to Charles.

The Spanish government had the readiness for peace in London first sounded out by Abbé Cesare Alessandro Scaglia (1592–1641) from the allied Savoy before the painter Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640), who was in Spanish diplomatic service, entered into direct negotiations in London in June 1629 arrived. The talks were fruitful, so that in November 1629 Charles sent the former ambassador Sir Francis Cottington (1579–1652) to Madrid with the task of confirming the peace of London , which ended the last Anglo-Spanish war in 1604. Here, however, the negotiations soon got stuck, as Charles insisted on the complete evacuation of the Palatinate by Spanish troops. From April 1630 it was foreseeable that the Spaniards would not agree to this. Nevertheless, the English attempts to change her mind dragged on until autumn. It was not until September 27, 1630 that Charles finally agreed to a draft contract in which the Palatinate was no longer mentioned. After nine months of negotiations, a peace treaty was concluded on November 15, 1630 , which was a modified version of the treaty of 1604 and essentially established the status quo ante . The peace treaty was officially announced on December 15, 1630 and ratified by Philip IV and Charles I two days later.

consequences

Allegorical image of Peter Paul Rubens on the peace treaty of 1630
During his stay in England Peter Paul Rubens painted the painting A Landscape with Saint George and the Dragon . It shows King Charles I as Saints George and Henrietta Maria. In the depiction, Charles brought peace to the country, which is an allusion to the Peace of Madrid .

The influence of the English approach on the course of the Thirty Years War remained small. There is no evidence that the English war significantly hindered Spain in its efforts to defeat the United Provinces. The Dutch had received funds and reinforcements from mercenary contingents recruited in England, but since the war in those years consisted almost entirely of sieges and not of major operations and field battles, this was of little consequence. Spain tended to benefit from the peace treaty and the subsequent cooperative attitude of England. Spanish ships were allowed to use English ports on their way from Spain to the Netherlands and back from 1631. This undoubtedly provided logistical support.

The peace treaty therefore had the most important immediate consequences on the United Provinces of the Netherlands. For this reason, English diplomacy has long tried to keep its peace negotiations secret from its allies or to downplay it. But the relationship between the two countries deteriorated noticeably and reached a low point with the peace of Madrid. On January 12, 1631, a secret supplementary treaty between Spain and England was concluded, which provided for a joint attack on the United Provinces. This was a gesture with which King Charles I wanted to demonstrate his good intentions towards Spain. Because he now hoped in cooperation with Spain to achieve what he had not been able to force through a war: the restoration of the Electoral Palatinate and its evacuation of Spanish troops. Even if it remains unclear to what extent both sides really intended to comply with the terms of the treaty, Charles had thus led England back to the Spanish camp for the first time since 1560, where it remained until the outbreak of the Franco-Spanish War in 1635. In the years 1632 and 1634, news reached the Netherlands that the Spanish ambassador in London was trying to provoke an Anglo-Dutch conflict over the colony of Nieuw Nederland and thus trigger a war between the two countries. Although it did not come to that, it became apparent that Charles I's policies had strained Anglo-Dutch relations for decades to come. Both states should distrust each other in the next 50 years and wage no fewer than three wars against each other (see Anglo-Dutch naval wars ).

After the Peace of Madrid, England largely withdrew from the European conflicts. Since 1630 attempts were made to persuade the King of Sweden, Gustav II Adolf, who had landed in the empire, to liberate the Electoral Palatinate against payment of subsidies , but these diplomatic efforts also failed. When Frederick V of the Palatinate died in November 1632, the subject was no longer a priority for English politics. From 1630 on, France also appeared as the largest donor and supporter of the Protestant powers against the Habsburgs. Charles I, on the other hand, had no diplomatic clout in Europe without money and troops and therefore inevitably lost importance in the Protestant camp. It was only when France found itself at war with Spain from 1635 and a conquest of the Electoral Palatinate by French troops became more likely that Charles I signaled his willingness to take sides against Spain again. Before this could be realized, however, the conflict in Scotland (see Episcopal War ) made intervention abroad impossible. After the outbreak of war against France, Spain, in turn, had an increased interest in an alliance with England in order to be able to use the English ports in the English Channel. It therefore promised as early as 1636 to work towards a restoration of the Electoral Palatinate (now owned by Emperor Ferdinand III ). However, it was revealed during the Battle of the Downs in 1639 that England did not even have the strength to protect its own coastal waters, much less to play the role of a useful ally.

Moreover, the relationship between King Charles I and the English Parliament had deteriorated dramatically as a result of the disputes during the war. As Crown Prince, the initiative to go to war had come from him and Buckingham, using Parliament against his reluctant father. But in 1625 the congregation had shown itself to be uncooperative, and the following year it had approved no funding at all. When Charles raised these funds through forced loans and imprisoned people who resisted, he strengthened the opposition. In 1628 Charles rejected Parliament's Petition of Right and dissolved it for the third time to protect his favorite Buckingham. In doing so, he “poured oil on the fire of the constitutional crisis”. A final attempt to persuade parliament to approve money in 1629 resulted in the MPs declaring that the king's collections and arrests were illegal. After Charles I dissolved parliament again, he did not convene it for almost ten years. The Spain-friendly policy of the next few years made him unpopular, especially among the radical Puritans . When Charles finally needed the MPs again for tax permits and convened a parliament, this marked the beginning of the English Civil War , at the end of which the king was beheaded in January 1649.

literature

  • Ronald G. Asch: Jacob I - King of England and Scotland. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-17-018680-9 .
  • Porfirio Sanz Camañes: Diplomacia hispano-inglesa en el siglo XVII - Razón de estado y relaciones de poder durante la Guerra de los Treinta Años, 1618–1648 . Univ. de Castilla, La Mancha 2002. ISBN 84-8427-155-2 .
  • Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch. Routledge, London, New York 1995, ISBN 0-7448-0016-1 .
  • Thomas Cogswell: The Blessed Revolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989, ISBN 0-521-36078-1 .
  • Richard Cust: Charles I - A Political Life. Parson / Longman Publ., London, New York 2007, ISBN 978-1-4058-5903-5 .
  • Frances Gardiner Davenport (Ed.): European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648. Lawbook Exchange, Clark / New Jersey 2004, ISBN 1-58477-422-3 .
  • Geoffry Parker (Ed.): The Thirty Years' War. Routledge, London, New York 1997, ISBN 0-415-12883-8 .
  • Geoffrey Regan: The Guinness Book of Military Blunders. Guinness Publ., Enfield 1991, ISBN 0-85112-961-7 .
  • Peter Hamish Wilson: The Thirty Years War - Europe's tragedy. Penguin Books, London 2009, ISBN 978-0-674-03634-5 .
older representations

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Brennan C. Pursell: The Winter King - Frederick V of the Palatinate and the Coming of Thirty Years' War . Burlington 2003, pp. 109f, 171.
  2. ↑ Geoffry Parker (Ed.): The Thirty Years' War . London, New York 1997, p. 57f.
  3. ↑ Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1245 to Present , on: measuringworth.com (as of August 12, 2013)
  4. ↑ Ronald G. Asch: Jacob I - King of England and Scotland . Stuttgart 2005, pp. 173-177.
  5. ↑ Ronald G. Asch: Jacob I - King of England and Scotland . Stuttgart 2005, pp. 173-177.
  6. ↑ On the problem of the “Spanish Road” cf. Geoffrey Parker: The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road 1567-1659 . Cambridge 1995, passim.
  7. ↑ On the person of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham as a favorite of King James I, summarizing cf. Ronald G. Asch: Jacob I - King of England and Scotland . Stuttgart 2005, pp. 90-104.
  8. ↑ Ronald G. Asch: Jacob I - King of England and Scotland . Stuttgart 2005, pp. 192-195.
  9. ↑ Geoffry Parker (Ed.): The Thirty Years' War . London, New York 1997, p. 61.
  10. ↑ Ronald G. Asch: Jacob I - King of England and Scotland . Stuttgart 2005, p. 195.
  11. ^ Richard Cust: Charles I - A Political Life . London, New York 2007, p. 31.
  12. ^ Richard Cust: Charles I - A Political Life . London, New York 2007, pp. 37-40.
  13. ↑ Thomas Cogswell: The Blessed Revolution . Cambridge 1989, pp. 317f.
  14. ^ Richard Cust: Charles I - A Political Life . London, New York 2007, pp. 41-43.
  15. ↑ Ronald G. Asch: Jacob I - King of England and Scotland . Stuttgart 2005, p. 197.
  16. ^ Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, pp. 61, 66.
  17. ^ Richard Cust: Charles I - A Political Life . London, New York 2007, p. 44.
  18. ^ Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, pp. 67-71.
  19. ^ Peter Hamish Wilson: The Thirty Years War - Europe's tragedy . London 2009, p. 369.
  20. ^ A b c Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, p. 72.
  21. ↑ Geoffrey Regan: The Guinness Book of Military Blunders . Enfield 1991, pp. 142f.
  22. ^ Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, p. 72; Peter Hamish Wilson: The Thirty Years War - Europe's tragedy . London 2009, p. 369. The figures vary in the literature between 85 and 93 English ships and between 15 and 22 Dutch ships.
  23. ↑ Geoffrey Regan: The Guinness Book of Military Blunders . Enfield 1991, p. 142.
  24. ^ A b Geoffrey Regan: The Guinness Book of Military Blunders . Enfield 1991, p. 143.
  25. ↑ Porfirio Sanz Camañes: Diplomacia hispano-inglesa en el siglo XVII - Razón de estado y relaciones de poder durante la Guerra de los Treinta Años, 1618–1648 . La Mancha 2002, p. 84.
  26. ↑ a b Luis Gamboa y Eraso: Verdad de lo sucedido con ocasión de la venida de la armada inglesa sobre Cádiz en primero de noviembre de 1625 . Cordoba 1626.
  27. ^ Roger Manning: An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army 1585-1702 . Oxford 2006, p. 113; Geoffrey Regan: The Guinness Book of Military Blunders . Enfield 1991, pp. 143f.
  28. ^ A b Geoffrey Regan: The Guinness Book of Military Blunders . Enfield 1991, p. 144.
  29. ^ A b Roger Manning: An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army 1585–1702 . Oxford 2006, p. 114.
  30. ^ A b Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, p. 73.
  31. ↑ Geoffrey Regan: The Guinness Book of Military Blunders . Enfield 1991, pp. 144f.
  32. ^ A b Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, p. 74.
  33. ^ John Glanville: The Voyage to Cadiz in 1625 . New York 1965.
  34. ^ Roger Manning: An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army 1585-1702 . Oxford 2006, p. 115.
  35. ↑ Porfirio Sanz Camañes: Diplomacia hispano-inglesa en el siglo XVII - Razón de estado y relaciones de poder durante la Guerra de los Treinta Años, 1618–1648 . La Mancha 2002, p. 86.
  36. ^ RA Stradling: The Armada of Flanders - Spanish Maritime Policy and European War 1568-1668 . Cambridge, New York 1992, p. 59.
  37. ^ Luise Schorn-Schütte: Confessional Wars and European Expansion - Europe 1500–1648 . Munich 2010, p. 138.
  38. ↑ "Proclamation to declare that all Ships carrying Corne, or other Victuals, or any Munitions of Warre, to or for the King of Spaine or any of his Subjects, shall be, and ought to be esteemeed as lawfull Prize," quoted. According to: Porfirio Sanz Camañes: Diplomacia hispano-inglesa en el siglo XVII - Razón de estado y relaciones de poder durante la Guerra de los Treinta Años, 1618–1648 . La Mancha 2002, p. 86.
  39. ↑ "Our honor is ruined, our ships are sunk, our men are perished not by the sword, not by the enemy, not by chance, but [...] by those we trust." Quoted from: Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, p. 79.
  40. ^ Richard Cust: Charles I - A Political Life . London, New York 2007, p. 52ff.
  41. ^ Peter Hamish Wilson: The Thirty Years War - Europe's tragedy . London 2009, p. 369f.
  42. ↑ Porfirio Sanz Camañes: Diplomacia hispano-inglesa en el siglo XVII - Razón de estado y relaciones de poder durante la Guerra de los Treinta Años, 1618–1648 . La Mancha 2002, p. 90.
  43. ^ Frances Gardiner Davenport (Ed.): European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648 . Clark / New Jersey 2004, p. 300.
  44. ↑ Porfirio Sanz Camañes: Diplomacia Hispano-inglesa en el siglo XVII - Razón de estado y relaciones de poder durante la Guerra de los Treinta Años, 1618-1648 . La Mancha 2002, p. 89.
  45. ^ Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, pp. 89f.
  46. ^ David Marley: Wars of the Americas - A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World 1492 to the Present . Santa Barbara 1999, pp. 135f.
  47. ^ David Marley: Wars of the Americas - A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World 1492 to the Present . Santa Barbara 1999, pp. 136f.
  48. ^ David Marley: Wars of the Americas - A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World 1492 to the Present . Santa Barbara 1999, pp. 137f.
  49. ^ Robert L. Paquette, Stanley Lewis Engerman: The Lesser Antilles in the Age of European Expansion . University Press of Florida, 1996, pp. 90-93.
  50. ↑ Porfirio Sanz Camañes: Diplomacia Hispano-inglesa en el siglo XVII - Razón de estado y relaciones de poder durante la Guerra de los Treinta Años, 1618-1648 . La Mancha 2002, pp. 92f, 96.
  51. ^ Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, pp. 84f.
  52. ↑ Frances Gardiner Davenport (ed.): European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648 . Clark / New Jersey 2004, p. 300.
  53. ^ A b Frances Gardiner Davenport (Ed.): European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648 . Clark / New Jersey 2004, pp. 305-307; The text of the contract can be found in Latin and English, ibid. Pp. 308–314.
  54. ^ Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, p. 171.
  55. ↑ Peter Young, Richard Holmes: The English Civil War . Hertfordshire 2000, p. 21.
  56. ^ Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, pp. 171f.
  57. ^ A b Frances Gardiner Davenport (Ed.): European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648 Clark / New Jersey 2004, p. 307.
  58. ^ Roger Lockyer: The Early Stuarts - A political history of England 1603–1642 . London, New York 1989, p. 30.
  59. ^ Richard Cust: Charles I - A Political Life . London, New York 2007, p. 126.
  60. ^ Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, p. 172.
  61. ^ Richard Cust: Charles I - A Political Life . London, New York 2007, p. 127f.
  62. ^ Roger Lockyer: The Early Stuarts - A political history of England 1603–1642 . London, New York 1989, pp. 31f.
  63. ^ Charles Carlton: Charles I - The personal monarch . London, New York 1995, pp. 59f.
  64. ↑ Peter Young, Richard Holmes: The English Civil War . Hertfordshire 2000, pp. 19-23.
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on August 21, 2013 in this version .