Finnish Eastern Wars 1918–1920

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The Finnish wars to the east of 1918–1920 , also referred to in Finnish historiography as " kinship wars " (heimosodat) , comprise a series of armed operations by semi-official Finnish troops in the area of Russia, which has been weakened by revolution and civil war . The background to the trains, which were largely carried out by volunteers , was on the one hand the endeavor to bring together the Karelians , who were related according to the Finnish point of view, in a greater Finland , on the other hand the aim of an eastern border that was easier to defend. The numerically weak expedition troops failed, among other things, because the local population was not enthusiastic about connecting their settlement areas to Finland to the extent hoped. Hostilities between Finland and Soviet Russia ended in 1920 with the Peace of Dorpat .

backgrounds

The map shows Finland within the boundaries of the Grand Duchy. The light red areas represent the area increases hoped for within the framework of a Greater Finland. The border with Russia would have been drastically shortened by the three isthmus border.

Finland, which had belonged to the Russian Empire as an autonomous Grand Duchy since 1809 , gained state independence in the wake of the Russian October Revolution in 1917 . This process was accompanied by serious internal conflicts, which soon culminated in the Finnish civil war that began on January 27, 1918 . In this, the "reds" - socialist revolutionaries supported by the Russian Bolsheviks - stood against the bourgeois " whites " who put down the uprising until May 1918.

Although the participants on both sides were primarily Finns, the bourgeois side viewed the war less as a civil war than as a war of freedom to secure independence from revolutionary Russia. However, not all whites limited the aims of this conflict, perceived as a Finnish-Russian conflict, to the removal of revolutionary forces from the territory of the old Grand Duchy. As early as the middle of the 19th century, in the course of the awakening of a Finnish national consciousness, the irredentist idea of ​​a Greater Finland had also taken hold. The core of this kinship trend was the view that the peoples of East Karelia living across the border, due to their culture, their language and their character, should form a natural unit with Finland and therefore belong to the same state.

Military considerations were interwoven with national motives. The situation of the young state appeared to be threatened in the medium term, the long land border with Russia seemed difficult to defend if a re-strengthened Russia wanted to recapture Finland one day. By incorporating the East Karelian areas, a so-called three isthmus border between the Gulf of Finland , Lake Ladoga , Lake Onega and the White Sea could have been reached only half as long . Juho Kusti Paasikivi , who was chairman of the Finnish Senate from May to November 1918, considered the acquisition of East Karelia to be absolutely vital for Finland.

The efforts of the Greater Finland were given particular impetus when the Commander-in-Chief of the Whites, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim , spoke his so-called Oath of Sword in a public address to the white troops on February 23, 1918:

“I will not sheath my sword until all the fixings are in our hands, until legal order is in place in our country, until the last of Lenin's warriors and rioters have been driven out, from Finland as well as from White Karelia. Trusting in our right and noble cause, trusting in our brave men and self-sacrificing women, we are now creating a mighty, great Finland. "

Meanwhile, the political and military situation in Russia was chaotic. The German offensive in February 1918 led to the collapse of the Russian defense and forced Bolshevik Russia to sign the Brest-Litovsk peace treaty . This prompted the formerly allied Entente powers to intervene militarily in Russia. In June 1918 a British contingent landed in Murmansk , in particular to secure the strategically important Murman Railway . As a result of the uprising of anti-Bolshevik forces inside Russia in May 1918, the civil war that would last until 1920 broke out in full severity.

Campaigns in 1918

In 1918, Finnish troops undertook three war expeditions across the Finnish eastern border, which took place at the same time but were very different in nature, protagonists and course. Preparations for these trains began during the ongoing civil war and were partly conditioned by it. After the outbreak of the civil war, numerous Red Guards had fled from the central and northern part of Finland, which was dominated by the whites, across the border to Russia. Together with the Russian Bolsheviks, they created a danger there for the hinterland of white Finland. Together with the greater Finnish currents, this danger became the mainspring for some activists to bring about the annexation of East Karelia to Finland. The country's political and military leadership supported the plans, even if they hardly provided regular troops because of the ongoing fighting of the civil war.

Formation of the expeditions

The expedition to southern White Karelia under Carl Wilhelm Malm did not reach its destination Kem and remained around its base in Ukhta until it was forced to retreat.

The southernmost of the three military campaigns into southern White Karelia was initiated and led by Lieutenant Colonel Carl Wilhelm Malm , who was an ardent supporter of the Finnish concept of kinship. In consultation with the military command under Mannerheim, he formed his force of around 370 men, primarily from volunteers from the Kuopio region, and gave them the name “Troops of White Karelia” ( Vienan-Karjalan joukot ). The participants in the procession wore a white ribbon on their right arm that said “For Karelia”. It was obvious that the troops sent to White Karelia would not be enough for a military conquest of the area. Instead, the initiators counted on the Karelian population, encouraged by the Finnish intervention, to rise up to revolt and thus enable the connection to Finland. The group carried 2,000 rifles and ammunition with them to distribute to the Karelians who would join the force.

Further north, a war force formed under the leadership of the Jägerleutnant Kurt Martti Wallenius . Unlike Malm, Wallenius did not assume that the Karelians would approach the Finns with flying colors, but he considered a quick cleansing of northern White Karelia and, if possible, other areas by the Finnish Red Guards to be militarily indispensable. Since not enough volunteers could be recruited for the operation in the time available, Mannerheim also assigned 500 conscripts , who, however, lacked both training and ideological reliability. From the conscripts and volunteers from the protective corps Österbotten a 1,200-strong force was finally formed by the end of March 1918.

The third, northernmost expedition set itself the task of annexing the Petschenga area to Finland and thereby giving the country access to the Arctic Ocean . A transfer of this area had already been discussed in 1864 under Tsar Alexander II . It was only at the beginning of March that Lenin had promised the emissaries of the People's Commissariat of Red Finland that the territory would be ceded, but the subject naturally also interested the whites. The official troops under Wallenius, however, were not given permission to advance to Pecheng as the Finnish government feared a conflict with the British intervention troops that had landed in Murmansk. At the beginning of April 1918, the Senate then gave permission for the formation of an unofficial company, but armed with weapons by the army. The troops were led by two civilians without any war experience, the natural scientist Thorsten Renvall and the doctor Onni Laitinen . There were also no officers among the approximately 100 participants in the train.

Military advances

The advances into northern White Karelia under Kurt Martti Wallenius suffered severe setbacks in the early stages and came to a standstill in Sokolosero.

Lieutenant Colonel Malm's troops, advancing from Suomussalmi , were the first to cross the border in a parade march on March 21, 1918. They first advanced via Woknawolok to Uchta , the largest settlement in the region, without encountering any resistance. On April 10, it made an inadequately prepared advance on Kem , which, as a port city on the White Sea on the Murman Railway, was an important transport hub. The attack was easily repulsed by Bolshevik fighters. Malm's soldiers withdrew to Ukhta, where they remained in military passivity for several months. The Karelian population behaved skeptically to indifferently towards the "liberators" and did not join the Finnish troops despite intensive propaganda work. The long battles of the world war had made the Karelians war-weary. Moreover, they had no particular desire to join Finland, rather the Finns were suspected of wanting to exploit the natural treasures of Karelia - including rich ore deposits and large areas of forest. Bolshevik rule was not perceived as a threat at this point.

The troops led by Wallenius were divided into two parts. Wallenius himself commanded around 500 men with the base at Lake Paanajärvi in the municipality of Kuusamo , 700 men were under the orders of Lieutenant Jäger Oiva Willamo with the base in Kuolajärvi . Even before the conscripts arrived, the Willamos division began successfully clearing the border area on the Finnish side of red combat units on March 21. On March 31, Wallenius received permission to cross the border from headquarters. While Malm's troops consisted of enthusiastic kinship warriors, here the conscripts protested against their use outside Finland. The attack operations were noticeably impaired by this unwillingness, and later there was even outright riot and disobedience.

Wallenius and Willamo each crossed the border on April 3. The first strategic destination was the village of Sokolosero , which on the isthmus between two lakes represented an important gateway into the interior of White Karelia. Advancing from the north, Willamo took the village of Tumtscha, but failed during the advance on Ruwaniski due to the resistance of the Red Guards and finally had to retreat to Finland. Wallenius' attempt to capture Sokolosero from the south failed on that day, as did a second attempt on April 8th. Further north, on April 7, an advance in the direction of Kowda , located on another isthmus, was repulsed in the early stages with heavy losses. In view of these failures, surprisingly, the Reds finally vacated Sokolosero due to supply problems, so that the place was taken in mid-April without a fight. The attackers were unable to achieve any further gains in terrain and remained in their positions.

The Pechenga expedition of Renvalls and Laitinen crossed the border on April 27, 1918 with skis and reindeer sleighs . As in the other scenes, the intruders could not win the trust of the population here either. The group penetrated the barely populated area to the Arctic coast without any resistance worth mentioning.

Change in the political situation

In the meantime, the development of the general political situation led, on the one hand, to a decline in support for expeditions from home and, on the other, to a strengthening of military resistance.

The commander-in-chief of the (white) Finnish armed forces, Mannerheim, fell out with the political leadership after the end of the civil war and gave up the supreme command on May 29, 1918. With this the campaigns lost their most influential supporter. From the beginning of August, representatives of the Finnish government in Berlin conducted diplomatic negotiations with Soviet Russia on the peaceful cession of East Karelia to Finland. However, the Russians did not accept the demands of the Finns. The latter were disappointed in expectation of strong support from Germany. For the Germans, when the war continued, it was imperative not to endanger peace with Russia. As a result, the Finnish military leadership took a cautious course so as not to endanger the young independence.

Meanwhile, the British troops landed in Murmansk viewed the activities of the Finns in Karelia as a threat and suspected that they were primarily active in the interests of Germany. In the summer of 1918, the British equipped a “Karelian Regiment” in White Karelia, consisting of around 250 Karelians, most of whom had war experience. Further to the north, they formed the "Legion Murmansk", which operated as part of the British Army, from 500 Red Guards who had fled Finland and grew to around 1,000 men by the following winter. Not least because of the joint propaganda of Great Britain and Soviet Russia, the attitude of the Karelian population changed from indifference to hostility in late summer, numerous Karelians joined the troops formed by Great Britain, only a few the Finns.

Withdrawal and dissolution

The small expedition to Petschenga quickly reached the Arctic Ocean, but had to withdraw again after a few weeks.

The British troops landed on the coast of Pechengas as early as the beginning of May and, together with the Finnish and Russian Red Guards, attacked the expedition from Renvall and Laitinen from May 10th. They were forced to flee into the fells . The two leaders fell out, and Laitinen moved to Finland with the nine-man group under his command. Renvall held out for a while, disturbed by Norwegian border guards who took 18 men prisoner. They waited in vain for support and supplies from headquarters. On July 5th, the Pechenga expedition, which had meanwhile shrunk to about 30 men, disbanded. Five of the participants had died, one fell victim to the Spanish flu in Norway .

The troops under Wallenius that had invaded northern White Karelia stopped attempting to attack in early May and switched to defense. At the same time the Murmansk Legion began military advances. Wallenius' troops were increasingly seen as part of the border guard and from July onwards were referred to as the Lapland I Border Guard Battalion . In addition to the operations of the Murmansk Legion, they were particularly concerned about the poor supply from Finland. At the beginning of October the last positions across the border were given up. The company claimed at least 50 dead on the Finnish side.

Further south, general developments, especially the attitude of the Karelians, shook the morale of Malm's troops. Many of the soldiers who were given leave to work in the fields in the summer did not return. At the beginning of July, the number of volunteers stationed in the Uhta area had dropped to a few tens when Malm, weakened by illness, gave up his command. He was succeeded by the enthusiastic kinship warrior, hunter captain Toivo Kuisma . This put the troops on a new basis by recruiting ten hunters from Finland as officers. New volunteers, mostly between the ages of 16 and 21, were recruited from all over Finland. The resulting 250-strong force was now called the "Army of the Volunteers of Finland" ( Suomen vapaaehtoisten armeija ). It enjoyed the personal and financial support of the Finnish ruler Pehr Evind Svinhufvud , but no official state body had taken responsibility for Kuisma's enterprise.

At the end of August the Karelian regiment, which had grown to 300–400 men, began attacking the Finnish positions. The positions in Yushkosero and Kostomuksha were destroyed. At the beginning of September, Kuisma began to withdraw. On October 1, the Karelian troops succeeded in encircling the majority of the Finnish soldiers in Woknawolok. In the next largest battle of this campaign, the Finns escaped destruction only when the 50-man second company attacked the Karelians' flank. Repulsing the attack was seen as a victory by the Finns, but the remaining forces withdrew completely to Finland the following day. They initially took on border protection tasks and were finally disbanded in October. In the numerous skirmishes, large and small, in the inaccessible wilderness of White Karelia, 83 of the 300 or so men of Malm and Kuisma who took part in the fighting had died.

While the organization of the troops, the course of the fight and the number of victims on the Finnish side were the subject of numerous historical research work and are therefore quite well known, the information about the respective opposing side is thinner. In particular, there are no reliable figures available for the number of victims. Historical research has not yet systematically evaluated the Russian archives relating to the Finnish wars in the east.

Olonez Campaign 1919

In a changed international situation, the Finnish ambitions in the direction of Karelia were resumed in 1919 and were embodied in a large campaign in the Olonez area . The campaign was carried out with greater power and clearer official support, but was also a purely volunteer enterprise. After the Finns initially penetrated far into the target area, they were ultimately pushed back to Finland by the overwhelming strength of the Bolshevik defenders.

Background and preparation

The efforts to inspire the Karelian population for the Greater Finnish idea fell on fertile ground in only two communities. Repoly (Finnish Repola) declared 1918, Porossosero (Finnish Porajärvi) 1919 annexed to Finland.

A train to the Olonez area was planned as early as 1918, but was not carried out due to the lack of troops. By 1919 the general conditions had changed considerably. For the time being, Germany no longer played a role in Finnish politics; relations with the Western powers had improved. Soviet Russia was under heavy pressure from the white opponents of the civil war, who oppressed Petrograd from the west but also ruled the far north. With the offensive of the white army in southern Russia and the activities of the whites in Siberia, the situation of the Soviets in the civil war in 1919 was generally most critical. In this situation, the kinship activists revived their interest in the grain-rich Olonez region. The movement was boosted by the decision made in 1918 by the municipality of Repoly , which borders Finland, to join Finland.

The initiative for the mission came from the hunters Gunnar von Hertzen , Paavo Talvela and Ragnar Nordström in January 1919 . The “Karelia Committee” established for recruitment brought together over a thousand volunteers by the beginning of March. The organizers set the goal of occupying the Olonets region quickly and encouraging the population to declare the connection to Finland. The government under Mannerheim, who has meanwhile been appointed imperial administrator and Prime Minister Lauri Ingman , initially wavered, but finally gave permission to cross the border after an uprising in Wedlosero in Karelian at the end of March . The government under Kaarlo Castrén , which came into office after the elections in mid-April, confirmed the decision, and at the end of April parliament approved the funding.

The military leadership appointed lieutenant colonel Ero Gadolin as commander in chief . A total of 132 hunters took part in the campaign as officers and NCOs. Otherwise, however, regular army troops were not deployed. Rather, the train consisted entirely of volunteers. The attack started with about 900 men, but further recruitment increased the number of participants to 4,500 men. Most of the participants were between 16 and 20 years old.

Finnish advance

The venture had been under time pressure from the start because it wanted to start before the snowmelt started. The first long-distance patrol under Sergeant Paul Marttina set out on April 18, 1919 across the ice of Lake Ladoga to break the tracks of the Murman Railway . Two days later the actual attack began from Salmi in two main directions. Paavo Talvela led the northern troop to Prjascha and on in the direction of Petrozavodsk , the largest city in the region and an important port on Lake Onega. The southern advance under von Hertzen penetrated along the shores of Lake Ladoga to the city of Olonez, the political and cultural center of the region, and further to the vicinity of the river Svir . The advance was supported laterally by a small, 56-man force under Antti Isotalo , who advanced quickly across Lake Ladoga, but lost half of their soldiers in the attack on the village of Pisi and finally in Olonez, which was taken without a fight on April 23 , met with the main force.

The Finnish expedition penetrated far into the Olonets area in two main directions in April 1919, but could not reach the strategically important goals on the Murman Railway.

Marttina's remote patrol crossed the Swir, but was discovered and was unable to destroy the railway line. The attempt of the southern main troops to advance to Lodeinoje Pole at the Murman Railway also failed . In the leadership of the Finnish troops, there were conflicts between von Hertzen and Gadolin, who finally resigned on April 28th from the supreme command and was replaced by Aarne Sihvo . The Soviet Russian troops began counter-attacks and on May 4th they retook Olonez. The Finns withdrew with heavy losses to Aleksala a few kilometers west of the city, where the front stabilized for the time being. Meanwhile, Talvela had advanced further north with constant fighting to Prjascha and had captured the city on April 29th. On May 3, the Finns, at the same time repelling a Russian counterattack, advanced their position in the direction of Petrozavodsk to the village of Matrosy, where they took up their defensive positions.

The Finnish soldiers were welcomed with goodwill by the Karelian population. In the course of the campaign, more than 2000 of them joined the troops, even if this reinforcement turned out to be of almost no military importance due to their inadequate training. The hoped-for general popular uprising did not materialize, however. Talvela also tried to contact the British operating in northern Russia, who were facing the same enemy there, the Bolshevik Russians. Cooperation did not materialize, however, as Great Britain primarily supported the white Russians, who in turn strictly refused to expand Finland at Russia's expense.

Collapse of the campaign

Meanwhile, the Finns got into increasing organizational difficulties. Despite supply problems and the numerical superiority of the opponent, von Hertzen attacked again. This decision resulted in serious conflicts with the officers. Several divisions left the front and returned to Finland. After briefly conquering the city of Olonez, von Hertzen withdrew his troops on May 13th to Tuloksa, where heavy defensive battles had to be fought. From June onwards, the troops recorded constant bloodletting because the volunteers, who were only signed up for two months, returned home. The Finnish kinsman warriors faced similar problems on the northern front.

The Finnish southern front received the decisive blow when the Bolsheviks, who were able to move unhindered on Lake Ladoga, landed in Widliza on June 27, destroyed Hertzens' headquarters and forced the Finnish troops on the front, cut off from supplies, to withdraw immediately. The northern front also collapsed after an initially successful advance towards Petrozavodsk. By the beginning of August the Finns had withdrawn completely from Russian territory and the troops had largely disbanded. Only in Pogrankonduschi , which is close to the border , were smaller groups engaged in positional battles until March 1920.

There is no reliable data on either side about the number of those killed in action during the Olonez campaign. At least 330 men died on the Finnish side, some estimates put 400 dead and 600 to 800 wounded. The total losses are thus around 30% of the total strength. The level of losses on the Russian side is completely unknown. The only, albeit indirect, result of the campaign is that in June 1919 the municipality of Porossosero followed the example of the neighboring municipality of Repoly and declared its annexation to Finland.

Pechenga expedition 1920

During 1919 Finland sought diplomatic progress on the territorial issue at the Paris Peace Conference , but was unsuccessful. However, the Allied intervention army withdrew from northern Russia at the end of 1919, and the white army, which was already approaching its demise, was unable to fill the vacuum created. So it seemed that there was another opportunity to take the Petschenga area under Finnish control.

The new expedition was understood as a political undertaking and placed under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Kurt Martti Wallenius took over the leadership of the group of 60 members of the Kaartti Jäger Battalion. She crossed the border on January 28, 1920 and advanced to the Arctic Sea with her reindeer sleigh until February 10 without fighting. The expedition was numerically too small to control the vast area and secure supplies, which was hardly remedied by the later arrival of 30 and then another 99 men by March.

When the resistance of the white Russians collapsed and the Bolsheviks moved north, the situation of the Finnish expedition became untenable. She began withdrawing on March 22nd. On the same day the Bolsheviks landed in two ships in the Pechengafjord and also penetrated the area by land. On April 1, the expedition's only battle took place in Salmijärvi , in which the Finns faced a ski association led by the former soldier of the Murmansk Legion Kalle Kukka , made up of Russians, Karelians and escaped Red Finns, as well as fighters from Red Guards from Pechenga themselves. Four men fell from the expedition, four were wounded, three escaped and 29 were retreating into Norwegian territory and interned there.

Finnish volunteers in further conflicts

The Finnish kinship activists did not limit themselves to participating in their own ventures into Russian territory, but also felt called upon to stand by other kinsmanlike peoples in their struggle with Bolshevik Russia.

The most lasting effects were the participation of Finnish volunteers in the Estonian War of Freedom , in which the young state of Estonia successfully defended itself against Soviet Russia's attempt to recapture the Baltic States from November 1918 . The Finnish government supported the fight with arms deliveries, but was unable to send regular soldiers. By February 1919, however, 3800 Finnish volunteers had joined the Estonian army. Since most of these had already gained war experience, they represented a significant reinforcement of the Estonians. In 1919 and 1920 Finnish volunteers also took part in the fighting in Ingrianland , in which the Ingrians sought to form their own state.

Peace of Dorpat

In the Treaty of Dorpat in 1920, Finland was given access to the Arctic Ocean with Petschenga (Petsamo in Finnish).

The year 1920 brought Finland and Soviet Russia to the brink of direct military confrontation. The remnants of the doomed white army in the north were crushed by the Red Army in Murmansk in February and now retreated to the two municipalities of Repoly and Porossosero, which originally belonged to Russia but have since joined Finland. The Finnish government under Prime Minister Juho Vennola gathered regular troops in the communities to defend the area against the expected advancement of the Red Army. From the end of February there were several skirmishes in the municipality of Porossosero.

Ultimately, however, both sides did not want an escalating conflict to come down to it. On the Russian side, a decisive reason for this was the war with Poland , which had flared up in the meantime and which tied up the military forces. After ceasefire negotiations on the Sestra River in April , Russia made an official peace offer in May. The negotiations began on June 12, 1920 in Dorpat .

In the negotiations, the new Finnish government under Prime Minister Rafael Erich initially continued to believe that a connection between East Karelia and Finland was achievable. The aim of the Finnish negotiating delegation under Juho Kusti Paasikivi was to hold a referendum on the affiliation of these areas. The Soviet delegation countered by founding the “Commune of the Working People of Karelia”, led by the Finnish refugee Edvard Gylling , which, according to the Soviet view, represented the will of the people. Soviet Russia offered an agreement based on the 1914 borders with some minor adjustments in favor of Russia.

The negotiations were suspended for two weeks in July. The Finnish social democrat Väinö Tanner, with Paasikivi's knowledge , used this time for unofficial talks with the other side, in which he gave economic aspects priority over territorial gains and signaled that Pechenga in particular was indispensable for Finland because of the access to the Arctic Ocean. Tanner continued this diplomacy after the talks had progressed. While the left-wing political spectrum in particular was exerting increasing pressure on the government to be compliant with regard to other territorial demands, the government's minimum position was that, in any case, no area that belonged to Finland before independence should be surrendered.

After tough negotiations, the Peace of Dorpat was finally signed on October 14, 1920. Finland received Petschenga and otherwise remained untouched in its traditional territory, but had to give up Repoly and Porossosero. The goals of the Finnish kinship activists remained largely unrealized. In the winter of 1921/22 some Finnish activists took part in the Karelian people's uprising as volunteers , but official Finland no longer played a role here. The border between the Soviet Union and Finland created by the Peace of Dorpat remained in place until it was called into question again by the Winter War in 1939 . For Finland, the peace treaty also meant a stabilization of its international position, which was expressed in particular in the fact that the country was accepted into the League of Nations in December 1920 .

literature

  • Jussi Niinistö : Heimosotien historia 1918–1922 . SKS, Helsinki 2005, ISBN 951-746-687-0 (quoted: Niinistö )
  • Pentti Virrankoski : Suomen historia 2 . SKS, Helsinki 2001, ISBN 951-746-342-1 (quoted: Virrankoski )
  • Jouko Vahtola: "Suomi suureksi - Viena vapaaksi": valkoisen Suomen pyrkimykset Itä-Karjalan valtaamiseksi vuonna 1918. Pohjois-Suomen Historiallinen Yhdistys, Oulu 1988. [Studia historica septentrionalia 17 ] -951-89547

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Niinistö, p. 16
  2. Virrankoski, p. 759
  3. ^ Text of the address on the hard pages of the University of Tampere on the occasion of Finland's 80 years of independence - translation by the author
  4. Niinistö, pp. 23-27; Virrankoski, p. 761
  5. ^ Niinistö, pp. 56–58
  6. Niinistö, pp. 68-73
  7. Niinistö, p. 27 f .; Virrankoski, p. 761
  8. Niinistö, pp. 59–63
  9. Niinistö, pp. 60–65
  10. Niinistö, p. 73 f.
  11. Niinistö, p. 28 f .; Virrankoski, p. 762
  12. Niinistö, p. 30; Virrankoski, p. 761 f.
  13. Niinistö, p. 74 f.
  14. Niinistö, p. 65 f. (Fallen numbers aggregated from pp. 59–65)
  15. Niinistö, pp. 30, 34
  16. ^ Niinistö, p. 43
  17. Niinistö, pp. 45–52
  18. ^ Niinistö, p. 53
  19. ^ Niinistö, p. 15
  20. Niinistö, pp. 148–153
  21. Virrankoski, p. 767 f., Niinistö, p. 156 f.
  22. Niinistö, pp. 159-164
  23. ^ Niinistö, pp. 165–168
  24. ^ Niinistö, p. 156 f .; Virrankoski, p. 768
  25. Niinistö, p. 168 f.
  26. Niinistö, pp. 169-171
  27. ^ Niinistö, pp. 176-183
  28. ^ Niinistö, p. 183
  29. ^ Niinistö, p. 78
  30. ^ Niinistö, pp. 78–81
  31. Virrankoski, p. 767
  32. Niinistö, pp. 214-216
  33. Niinistö, p. 216 f.
  34. ^ Niinistö, p. 217 f.
  35. Niinistö, pp. 219-222
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on October 19, 2007 in this version .