Fulfulde

Fulfulde (Ful, Fula, Fulani, Peul , Poular / Pulaar )
Spoken in	Mauritania , Senegal , Mali , Guinea , Burkina Faso , Niger , Nigeria , Cameroon , Gambia and partly in: ; Chad , Sierra Leone , Benin , Guinea-Bissau , Sudan , Central African Republic , Ivory Coast , Ghana , Togo
speaker	13-25 million
Linguistic ; classification	Niger-Congo Atlantic Congo Atlantic Northern Senegambian Fula-Wolof Ful ;
Official status
Official language in	Nigeria (regional)
Other official status in	National language in Burkina Faso Guinea Senegal Niger Mauritania Gambia; ; ; ; ; ;
Language codes
ISO 639 -1	ff
ISO 639 -2	ful

Fulfulde (also: Ful; English Fula / Fulani , French peul ) belongs to the Atlantic (also "West Atlantic") branch of the Niger-Congo languages . The eastern dialect of the language is called Ful or Fulfulde , the western dialect is often called Poular or Pulaar .

A relatively closely related language is Wolof .

distribution

Ful is spoken in a long volume through the Sahel and the savannah from Senegal and Guinea to Sudan . Larger areas in which Ful is spoken are the Futa Jalon , the Fouta Toro , the Massina in the Niger - inland delta around Djenné as well as northern Nigeria , southern Niger and especially northern Cameroon ( highlands of Adamaua ), where it is also used for inter-ethnic communication. Along with Hausa , the Ful is one of the most widespread languages in (West) Africa and is an important lingua franca in West Africa, as well as among African refugees in Europe . Ful is spoken by around 7,300 people in small groups in northern Ghana . The most important Fulfulde poet is Nana Asma'u (1793 to 1864).

The Ful is spoken in several states of the Sahara and the Sahel by:

den Bororo , plural: Wororbe , which to this day are only slightly Islamized, practice a very original cattle nomadism and can be found in Mali and Niger.

the Toukoulor (Tukulor) in Mauritania and Senegal.

the so-called Haus- Fulbe who conquered the city-states of northern Nigeria with Usman dan Fodio , adhere to a strict Islam and are increasingly being absorbed into the Hausa today.

of the population of North Cameroon, who use a grammatically simplified Fulfulde as lingua franca , but have mostly retained their ethnic identity.

See: Overview map of the distribution of the Fulbe (Peul, Halpoular).

In Sierra Leone (as of 2015) almost 173,000 people speak Fullah as their main language.

origin

There is disagreement about the origin of the relatively widespread but strange language. Egyptian, Malaysian, European and African origins were considered in view of these languages with nominal classes, which, however, can also have arisen from the Ful.

First of all, the lighter skin color and the different cultural situation of the Fulani are noticeable, then also the high complexity of the language. Initial sounds and sound shifts are similar to the European languages at the time of the first Indo-European sound shift.

In Africa, the language apparently spread from Pulaar (Mauritania, Senegal), which is the most complex, and from there to Mali, Niger and Chad, as well as to Futa-Dyalon. Simplifications arose there, which then spread to Togo, Northern Nigeria and Cameroon.

The Pulaar also represents the language as far as possible; In contrast to almost all other dialects, there are dictionaries created by the bearers of the language themselves, a Koran translation and forums, Wikipedia, translations of technical terms (e.g. Firefox), studies of the language as well as recording and attempts to keep it clean of foreign words etc.

Recent genetic studies help to clarify the origin, whereby it is important to distinguish the actual fair-skinned carriers of the language from secondary speakers as well as the differences to other languages ( e.g. Berber ). In this sense, the carriers of the language are characterized by genes of Caucasian and European on the one hand, and only European distribution and origin on the other, for example by the V, J1b and especially the U5 gene or its splitting off about 10,000 years ago. This points to an Indo-European origin of the language, possibly through migration to the West African coast, as also seems to be the case with the Yoruba , unlike the more original African languages such as Mandingo or Hausa .

Dialects

The following overview arranges the dialect groups of the Fulfulde and indicates their number of speakers and areas of distribution.

The dialects of the Fulfulde:

Ful

Fula, Fulfulde, Fulani, Pulaar, Peul (18 million native speakers, 22 million with second speakers.)

East Fulfulde

Central East Niger Fulfulde (500,000)
West Niger-Burkina-Faso-Fulfulde (1.2 million); Dialects: Barani, Gawobe, Gourmantche, Jelgooij, Liptaako, Bogande, Gelaajo, Seeba-Yaga, Dallol-Boso, Bitinkore
Nigeria-Fulfulde (8 million); Dialects: Kano-Katsina, Bororo, Sokoto and others
Adamaua-Fulfulde (Cameroon) (1 million); Dialects: Maroua, Garoua, Ngaonder, Kanmbarire, Bilkiri and others
Bagirmi-Fulfulde (Chad) (200,000)

West Fulfulde

Borgu (Benin-Togo) (350,000)
Maasina-Fulfulde (Mali) (1 million); Dialects: Maasina, Douenza, Seeno and others
Fuuta Jalon (Guinea, Mali) (3 million); Dialects: Kebu Fula, Fula Peta
Pulaar (Senegal, Mauritania, Gambia) (3 million); Dialects: Tukulor (ethnic Wolof ), Futa Tooro = Jeeri, Fulacunda

Characters

Arabic writing

Fulfulde was also written in the Arabic script or Ajami by many scholars and scholars before colonization , including Usman dan Fodio and the early emirs of the northern Nigerian Emirates.

Latin characters

There are: Aa, Bb, Ɓɓ, mb, Cc (like pronouncing tch), Dd, Ɗɗ, nd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Ɠɠ or ɲ (like gn with soft g), Hh, ʔˀ or ɦ, Ii, Jj (dsch), Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Ŋŋ (ng with soft g), Ññ or ny (like nh in senhor), ɲ (gñ smoothly merging), Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx (like ch in Bach, scratching), Yy (like German j), Ƴƴ, Zz. Some of these are unofficial, local or academic. ɓ, ɗ, ƴ is obtained by speaking m, n, d continuously while pulling the back of the tongue back towards the upper palate and back; others in qibla (direction of prayer), taariixa (story), ɲ̩awnde (sick) or ɲiiƴe (tooth). Self-sounds can be long, self-sounds and sympathetic sounds are always alternating, all words begin with a sympathetic sound.

Fulfulde alphabet
A.	B.	Mb	Ɓ	C.	D.	Nd	Ɗ	E.	F.	G	Ɠ	Ng	H	I.	J	Nj	K	L.	M.	N	Ŋ	Ɲ	O	P	R.	S.	T	U	W.	Y	Ƴ	'
lowercase letters
a	b	mb	ɓ	c	d	nd	ɗ	e	f	G	ɠ	ng	H	i	j	nj	k	l	m	n	ŋ	ɲ	O	p	r	s	t	u	w	y	ƴ	'
Phonetic value
a	b	mb	ɓ	c ~ tʃ	d	nd	ɗ	ɛ ~ e	f	G	ɠ	ŋɡ	H	ɪ ~ i	ɟ ~ dʒ	nɟ ~ ndʒ	k	l	m	n	ŋ	ɲ	ɔ ~ o	p	r	s	t	ʊ ~ u	w	j	ʔʲ	ʔ

ADLaM

Adlam Pular ????? ?????
Font	alphabet
languages	Fulfulde
inventor	Ibrahima Barry and Abdoulaye Barry
Emergence	1980s
ancestry	Adlam Pular ????? ?????
Unicode block	U + 1E900-U + 1E95F
ISO 15924	Adlm

In the 1950s and 1960s there were unsuccessful attempts to develop a stand-alone font to write Fulfulde. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, two teenage brothers Ibrahima and Abdoulaye Barry from the Nzérékoré region of Guinea created the Adlam script, which accurately reproduces all the sounds of Fulfulde. The script is written from right to left and contains 28 letters with 5 vowels and 23 consonants.

ADLaM was taken over by the Unicode consortium in 2016 and integrated into the office software Office by Microsoft in 2019. The Kigelia and Ebrima font families support ADLaM.

Language structure

The Ful is one of the languages with a nominal class system , with 24 nominal classes. The most interesting nominal class is the person class with the suffixes -'o , plural: - ɓ e , which is common throughout the language family and has its equivalent in Bantu mu- , plural: ba- , and in the form muntu , plural: bantu "Mann", "Men" gave the whole Bantu language branch its name (this prefix is known, for example, in the name Watussi , actually a plural form of Tutsi ).

In addition, the Ful, similar to the in no way related Celtic, has so-called initial mutations (like other Atlantic languages). So-called implosive sounds are typical of the Fulfulde .

grammar

Verbs

Most of the verbs can be used actively ( -u- or <-Ø->), passively ( -ee- ), and some also self- referring to or without an object ( -aa- ).
A distinction must be made as to whether the incident has already been concluded (event or characteristic: -i or -u , -ii or -e , -aa ), or not (currently, in the future, possible: -a , -o , -e ) :

learn jangude : Mi jangi / janga I learn to sleep in general / straight
danade : O danii / dano He slept / sleeps
jeyede belong: Ɗum jeya / jeye .. That belongs ..

Past : Appending: <nothing>, -ke , -ma to closed form:
O daniike he was sleeping

Future : double the last vowel with -t- in between:
Mi danoto I'm sleeping (soon)

Negation : insert -aak- / -aan- for state / quality before the last vowel, optionally switch the previous vowel to a :
Mi jangaani I don't learn anything; Mi danotaako / danataano I will not / never sleep

For additional reinforcement or explanation of the past , no , if completed ma or no ma , the present ɗoni , (wo) ni or (wo) na , enfatic then he with an appended pronoun, inserted or added, the future ma can be used; but rarely useful in the case of negative : Mi jangi no I have learned; Mi horii ma hebde mbuddi I was unsuccessful in getting money; Mi daniinoke I slept; Mi danaakiino I hadn't slept; Mi danotaakino I will not have slept; Ma mi dano I'll sleep.

Subjunctive, conditional: Sentences of the type "If ... would / would, (then) would ..." mostly with Ti / Si "if" (-i often replaced by the following pronoun or -o), as well as kere / han (ti) "then ", Thus: So ... (no), (kere) ... (no) , with the times as in the indicative, unless specified: So mi dañi no (ma) mbuddi, (han) mi soodi (no) comci / tamseere If I had (had) money I would buy (have bought) laundry / bread

"... that ..." is formed with yo , ngela or the addition of the pronom to both verbs or personal infinitive: Omo yiɗdi (yo / ngela) enen dilli He wants us to go

Bowing

Pronoun subject

Mi I; A you; O he, she; Min / Men We without / with you, En we both; On her; Ɓe them (persons); for objects class pronoun or Ɗum / Ɗumˀen singular / plural
Mi andaani I don't know; O warii no He came

In many dialects the verb is adapted to the second initial stage of the subject
Mi haali I speak; Enen kaali we speak

Instead of preceding the pronoun, the pronoun can also be added, especially in cases where this is also the case in German, for example when an object or sentence completion is preferred (e.g., questions); -ɗ- is inserted between two vowels . In many dialects peculiarities such as 3rd initial sound level, only with special auxiliary verbs, not with 1st person, -u- / -e- with active / middle verb
Ngiddmi ko / he danaade I want to sleep; (Hol) no mbadɗa ? What do you do ? ; Ɗumdoŋ mbadɗen! That's exactly what we do!
Following the auxiliary verb hude make means as ..., with ...: Mi yihino mo hemo wujji I saw him when he stole

In the case of general properties or expressions in the sense of “… is…”, the pronoun is involved, for persons with -ɗo or -mo the person class or with -ɗ- as a separate participation of each pronoun:
Aɗa selli You are right; Omo tampi He is tired; Miŋmi ɗo I am here Miɗo ni yaha I am going now, cf. with auxiliary verb Mi ɗoni / woni yaha

Proximity designations such as -ɗo , -ɗa can be added to the pronoun : ɗumɗo das hier; ɗumɗoŋ that right here; Nagge ngeŋ (ɗa) ko am Exactly this cow (there) is mine

By doubling the last vowel or adding -ŋ , the pronoun can be emphasized in the sense of "exactly that". Relative pronouns are formed by nasalising at the beginning, optionally by adding ho (n) -. Questions through holi and pronouns for them through hol (i) / hon- or - (y) e
Ko ɗumdoŋ (ho) nɗum mi yiddi It is that-da what I want
Ko mii / miŋ, mi yiddaani . As for me, I don't want
Ho (li) mbo ɗo? Ko miŋ! ; Who's there ? Me! ; Holi tuma? Hoŋ tuma! When? Exactly at this time / then!

More numbers are also -en or -ɗi formed
mines menɗen ni Yahata I and my people, we go right

Often there are precise explanations in the fula. Those of the subject or verb take place with (wo) nude : mbo yahi, ko miŋ , (ko) miŋ mbo / mi yahi (it) I am the one who goes; miŋ no yahi I-exactly go (not you-about); mi yahi i go; Aɗa ni rabbi you-as-you-are is small; heɓi no fewi very full; the exact temporal state or sequence meanwhile with ɗude : Mi ɗo ni yaha I am going, Mi ɗo (ŋ) (woni / ni) yaha I am doing / right now / am about to go; Aŋ ɗi rabbi you are little; Omo ɗi ni heydi He is (just) hungry etc. Often various such explanations are combined

Command form: woni… , or for singular: infinitive ending , thus -u or <nothing>, -o / a , -e , for plural normal inflection or -ee ; Negation wotaa ... : Yah (u)! Go ; Ndaar ndiyam! Look, water (for you)! ; Woni a dano! / Dano! Sleep! ; daree / daroɗon! stand still! ; Yahuɗen / Yahen / Mahen! Let's go !

Pronoun object

Only academic differences between direct and indirect. (y) on, la me me, even mi me; ma you, you; mo es, him, him etc; miŋ / eŋ us without / with you; oŋ you; ɓe them; Different or universal ɗum / ɗumˀen Ez./Mz. for objects depending on the class , instead the following adjectives, optionally with fi or he in front of it, can be used: Habbo la! Wait for me ! ; Rokk am ɗumɗa! Give me that-there!

possessive pronouns

on mine; ma your; be mako , you; (a) miŋ / meŋ our without / with you; moŋ yours; measure them; different for objects, universal mu (ɗu) m / mu (ɗum) ˀen Ez./Mz. , optionally with pronouns or ko before or after: nagge am nge my cow; bile ko at my house

Clarification of the parts of the sentence

Normal is: subject - verb - object . The fact that something should be changed or emphasized can be expressed by adding something, albeit ambiguous but usually superfluous, such as the subject or object's relative pronoun, general pronoun ɗum / ko for things / people, or the subject hi , the object he was also has a case-generating (non-nominative) effect.
(Ho) nɗum mi ñami, ko / ɗum maaro What I eat is rice; ko / ɗum maaro (ho) nɗum mi ñami It is rice that-what I eat; ko / ɗum mi ñaminoma maaro (ri) ndi I ate the rice

auxiliary verbs

yidde want;
do hude , ended as hi or he / ko passive / enfatic: case-generating, also swapping OS;
have dañde ;
(where) nude / ɗonude to be / expire, neg .: (where) naa not be, yalla not be here;
wooɗde give, exist, neg. yalla not be there;
latude , wontude to become;
ɗaccude (be) let;
jab (i) tude take, fetch, catch
tawde / tahde , harude , feyyude happen

Mi yiddi ñamde hunde I want to eat; Mi yiddaani ñamde hay hunde I don't want to eat anything.
Oɗo (wo) ni wara , o mbo (wo) ni wara He is coming; (where) naa samakala! That's no joke !
ñiiri wooɗi? Is there something to eat here? ; ñiiri walla! There's no food here!
Himo tampi It is that he is tired; Hina kossam! Here is milk! ; Mi yihino ma hiɗa hewti I saw you when you arrived
“Haalde goto, hude oya!” (Proverb) Talking is one thing, acting is another.
(Ɗ) acci e (ne) ŋ / men yahde! Let's go ! ; Mi dañaani mbuddi / hay dogs! I have no money / nothing!
Tawi omo yahi / O yahi tawo He was already coming; Haray / taway… Maybe…; Tawi / feyyi (yo) ... it happened (that) ...

Adjectives

Correspond to the class of the object.
Omo tampii . Gorko tampuɗo . He is tired. A tired man.

While temporary properties are made with woni, hude as a verb, s. o., one makes permanent rather with a pronoun, mostly ko for persons or ɗum for things
Laawol ngol / ɗum juuti The way is long, cf. Laawol juutngol further way
X ko / ɗum janginowo X is a teacher. Compare : X no ka / to lumo X is at the market

The system of nominal classes

No other language in Cameroon has a nominal class system. This shows the relationship between the Fulfulde and the languages of the Senegal Valley , such as Wolof or Serer . It is assumed that after their arrival in this region (around the birth of Christ) the Fulani integrated the nominal classes into their language through contact with the local peoples.

The Fulfulde dialect in Maroua in North Cameroon explains some of the characteristics of this language. These include the system of nominal classes, initial sound permutation, the verbal system and verb-adjective dualism .

In the Fulfulde of North Cameroon there are 22 nominal classes that are actively used. Three more ( kal and ngum all serve as diminutives, kol has only one single basic word) are only rarely used. The individual classes are divided into three groups (initial stages) according to the permutation of the initial consonant. There are four possible suffixes in each class, which are appended to the stem depending on the type of word stem. This means that a word stem in all classes always requires an ending from the same suffix level.

1st volume level

nd

This is a large class that has many animate and inanimate words. The suffix levels are -re , -re , -de and -nde , the plural is formed almost exclusively via class ɗ e .

ndu

This is a class almost as large. It has the suffix levels -ru , -ru , -du and -ndu . Since suudu (house, room) belongs to this class, all other house types can also be found here. The same is also true of birds ( sonndu ). The plural words in this class go into class ɗ i .

nge

In contrast to the previous classes, this one has very few basic words. It includes nagge (domestic cattle), yiite (fire), naange (sun) and a few abstracts that end in -ye , such as B. hinnuye (grace) and wasuye (advice). At the same time, a multitude of derivatives are formed from these few words, because the Fulfulde is - like only a few languages - rich in words for cows. The suffix levels are -e , -ye , -ge and -nge , the plural is usually formed using class ɗ i .

ngo

All woven things belong in this class: daago (mat), sekko (grass mat), sa ɓɓ o (nest), fa ɗ o (sandal), further concrete words like maayo (river), wuro (village), luumo (market) ) and abstract ones like suuno (greed) and muuyo (will). The suffix levels are -o , -wo , -go and ngo , the plural is formed via class ɗ e or class ɗ i , depending on the word .

ko

The root word of this class is haako (leaf of a plant, sauce). Therefore, all kinds of leaves, whether from trees, bushes or grass, belong in this group: ɓ okko (African baobab ), giligannjaaho (Moringa). One of the few exceptions to this class is hunnduko (mouth). The suffix levels are -o , -ko , -ko and -ko , the plural is formed either from class ɗ e or class ɗ i .

ɓ e

This class contains all plurals of the person class ' o . The suffix is in all levels - ɓ e , whereby the words that end in the singular with -jo are mostly given the suffix -'en in the plural , e.g. B. jaamanjo - jaaman'en (the German, the Germans).

2nd volume level

ngal

The distinctive words of this class include leggal (wood) and i'al (bone). All bones of the body, all types of wood and many things made of wood can be found here: koombowal (boat), dambugal (door), koromwal (chair, stool), balawal (shoulder), korlal (shin). Just as many everyday objects, e.g. puteputewal (moped, because of idling noise ), biŋawal (spoon), especially those formed from verbs, such as jogorgal (handle) Some large birds, especially vultures, storks, herons and hornbills, also belong here: dutal ( Woolly vulture), nyaalal (cattle egret ), gagarammawal (saddle stork), gur ɓ allowal ( ground hornbill), jiigawal (vulture), gägerewal (crab). The suffix levels are -al , -wal , -gal and -ngal , the plural is usually formed using class ɗ e .

nails

This is the most commonly used diminutive class . Any word can be made smaller or cuter by transferring it here:

paatuuru - paatuuyel (kitten)

rawaandu - dawaangel (puppy dog)

maayo - maayel (brook)

hayre - kaa'el ( little stones)

The suffix levels are -el , -yel , -gel and -ngel , the plural is formed exclusively via the class kon (third initial level).

ngol

In this class there are many concrete terms that are characterized by their length: laawol (path), mahol (wall), ɓ oggol (rope), meetaleewol (turban), ngapaleewol (long robe). Some abstract terms from this class are: kulol (fear) and peewol (damp cold). The suffix levels are -ol , -wol , -gol and -ngol , the plural is usually formed using class ɗ i , and occasionally also using class ɗ e .

ki

The characteristic word of this class is lekki (tree, plant). Since medicine is traditionally made from plants, the third word meaning is "medicine" or "remedy". All trees and shrubs can be found in this class: ja ɓɓ i (tamarind tree), gelleehi (dump palm), bantaahi (white kapok tree), ɓ okki ( baobab ). Many pointed or sharp objects also have their home in this class: la ɓ i (knife), kaafaahi (sword). The suffix levels are -i , -hi , -ki and -ki , the plural is largely formed from class ɗ e .

ɗ around

This class is the so-called neutral class. It contains many verb- derived words, which mostly have adjectival or participatory meanings: boo ɗɗ um (good, beautiful), garan ɗ um (future), bi'etee ɗ um (the things you are talking about), ɗ uu ɗɗ um (a lot, numerous). The class ɗ um is also used whenever you are not quite sure which class to use while speaking. It is particularly popular with non-native speakers. The suffix levels are -um , -jum , - ɗ um and - ɗ um , the plural is usually formed using class ɗ e . ɗ um and its proper plural ɗ ums can be used generally and also for indefinite things.

ɗ e and ɗ i

All the plurals of the subject classes are found in these two classes. In Ostful, to which the dialect of Maroua also belongs, the following scheme can be set up for the transition from the singular to the plural class:

nde , ngo , ngal , ki and ɗ um	Plural with ɗ e
ndu , nga , nge , ngu	Plural with ɗ i
ngol , ka , ɗ am	Plural mostly with ɗ i
ndi and co go equal installments on the ɗ e and ɗ i over

The suffix levels are: -e , -je , - ɗ e , - ɗ e for the class ɗ e and -i , -ji , - ɗ i and - ɗ i for the class - ɗ i . Instead of the suffixes -e and -i one also sometimes finds -le or -li : fattude - pattule (district), ɓ unndu - ɓ ulli (fountain).

'O

All personal nouns in this class are found in the singular. Here are a few examples, each with the plural in class ɓ e :

gorko - wor ɓ e (man)

debbo - rew ɓ e (woman)

pullo - ful ɓ e (Ful)

Words that are derived from an activity usually end with -wo :

demoowo - remoo ɓ e (farmer) from remgo (farming)

piloowo - filoo ɓ e (trader) from filgo (do trade)

nyootoowo - nyootoo ɓ e (tailor) by nyootugo (sew)

canynyoowo - sanynyoo ɓ e (weaver) by sanynyugo (weaving)

The suffix levels are -o , -jo , - ɗ o and - ɗ o , the plural is only formed using class ɓ e .

The following, little-used classes also belong to the second initial stage:

col

The only real noun in this class is nyalahol (calf).

ngum

This is also a diminutive class (see above ngel ), the words used in it are called tiny, puny, pathetic or inferior.

cal

This is another diminutive class. It indicates that something is present in a small amount.

3rd volume level

ndi

This is the class of grains. To her belong z. B. gawri (millet), maaroori (rice), alkamaari (wheat and everything you make from it): kuroori (flour), nyiiri (millet porridge), mbusiri (liquid millet porridge). Another large group of words in this class are male animals such as agugumri (rooster), ngaari (bull), njawdi ( billy goat). Likewise, metals or products made from them, such as 'ñandi' (iron), 'mirandi' (tool). This class also includes numerous concrete and abstract words: comri (tiredness), pinndi (flower), kangeeri (gold), ndemri (agriculture). The suffix levels are -ri , -ri , -di and -ndi , half of the plural is made up of class ɗ e and class ɗ i .

nga

This class is an augmentative class ; that is, it is used to make terms bigger. It mainly includes large, often wild animals such as mbarooga (lion), nyiiwa (elephant) and tireewa (giraffe), but also domestic animals such as mbeewa (goat), mbaala (sheep) and ngeelooba (camel). This class is also used to form nouns from verbs: woo ɗ go - mboo ɗ eenga (goodness), teddugo - teddeenga (weight). The suffix levels are -a , -wa , -ga and -nga , the plural is usually formed using class ɗ i .

ngu

There are also many animals in this class. Since liingu (fish) belongs here, all fish are included in this class. Furthermore, ngabbu (hippopotamus), ndaw (u) (ostrich), puccu (horse), ngilngu (caterpillar, worm, maggot, larva, bacterium, virus) can be found here. Foods that grow underground are also classified here: mbiriiwu (peanut), ɓ ulumwu (yam root ), ngalaawu ( pea ). Some abstract terms in this class are nyaw (u) (disease) and sawtu (voice). The suffix levels are -u , -wu , -gu and -ngu , the plural is always formed using the class ɗ i .

ka

You cannot assign a specific word class to this class. Specific terms from this class are ngesa (field), ngaska (hole), sirla (trousers). Abstract terms are e.g. B. daliila (ground), asama (heaven), ɗ omka (thirst), alaama (signs). The suffix levels are -a, -ha, -ka and -ka, the plural is formed either from class ɗ e or class ɗ i .

con

All words that belong to the class ngel in the singular are transferred to the class kon in the plural . The suffix levels are -on , -hon , -kon and -kon .

ɗ on

This class contains everything that “flows”, such as liquids, fats and dairy products, powders, processes. Some examples are: ndiyam (water), nebbam (oil), ku ɓ ɓ ir ɗ am (gasoline), kosam (milk), njaram (drink), mbosam (yellow bone marrow), 'yi'yam (blood), en ɗ am (breast milk, transferred: mother's love); sukkar (sugar) and lamn ɗ am (salt); ngurn ɗ am (life), wuytye ɗ am (means of payment). The suffix levels are -am , -jam , - ɗ am and - ɗ am , the plural is usually formed using class ɗ i .

Noun classes

meaning	Volume level	Classes
Subject classes - singular	1.	nde, ndu, nge, ngo, ko
Subject classes - singular	2.	ngal, ngol, ki, ɗ um (kol)
Subject classes - singular	3.	ndi, nga, ngo, ka, ɗ am
Subject classes - plural	2.	ɗ e and ɗ i
Person class - singular	2.	'O
Person class - plural	1.	ɓ e
Diminutive classes - singular	2.	ngel, (ngum, kal)
Diminutive class - plural	3.	con
Augmentative class - singular	3.	nga

Suffix levels

(each with an example of a word stem)

Volume level	class	1. hes- (new)	2. where ɗ - (red)	3. wor- (male)	4.wul- (hot)
1.	nd	hesre	where ɗ eere	been	bulges
1.	ndu	hesru	where ɗ eeru	wordu	wulndu
1.	nge	hese	where ɗ eeye	worge	wishes
1.	ngo	heso	where ɗ eewo	worgo	wulngo
1.	ko	heso	where ɗ eeho	worko	wulko
1.	ɓ e	hes'be	wo ɗ ee ɓ e	wor ɓ e	wul ɓ e
2.	ngal	kesal	bo ɗ eewal	gorgal	valid
2.	nails	kesel	bo ɗ eeyel	organ	gulngel
2.	ngol	kesol	bo ɗ eewol	gorgol	gulngol
2.	ki	kesi	bo ɗ eehi	gorky	gulki
2.	ɗ e	kese	bo ɗ eeje	gor ɗ e	gul ɗ e
2.	ɗ i	kesi	bo ɗ eeji	gor ɗ i	gul ɗ i
2.	'O	keso	bo ɗ eejo	gorko *	gul ɗ o
2.	ɗ around	kesum	bo ɗ eejum	gor ɗ um	gul ɗ um
3.	ndi	kesri	mbo ɗ eeri	ngordi	ngulndi
3.	nga	kesa	mdo ɗ eewa	ngorga	ngulnga
3.	ngu	kesu	mbo ɗ eewu	ngorgu	ngulngu
3.	ka	kesa	mbo ɗ eeha	ngorka	ngulka
3.	con	keson	mbo ɗ eehon	ngorkon	ngulkon
3.	ɗ on	kesam	mbo ɗ eejam	ngor ɗ am	ngul ɗ am

* The word ending in the third suffix is usually - ɗ o , but the form here is called gorko (man).

Even if this table may seem confusing at first glance, there are many similarities between the groups with regard to the suffix levels:

nde , ndu and ndi

nge , ngo , nga and ngu

ko , ki and ka

ngal , ngel and ngol

ɗ e , ɗ i and 'o

ɗ at and ɗ at

permutation

Another characteristic of the Fulfulde is the permutation. With regard to languages, it means changing the sounds of a word stem, depending on the grammatical context in which they stand. August Klingenhaben writes the following: "An important morphological characteristic of the Ful that dominates the grammatical structure is a sound change that we summarize under the name permutation."

A distinction is made as sub-forms of the initial permutation, which occurs with the first sound of the word and is decisive for the classification in the nominal class system, and the internal permutation, which determines the initial sound of the class suffixes.

In the Fulfulde there are a number of sounds that are subject to permutation. A distinction is made in how many initial volume levels the sounds are changed.

Tripartite permutation

1st volume level	2nd volume level	3rd volume level
w	b	mb
w	G	ng
y	j	nj
y	G	ng
r	d	nd

w and y have two different permutation paths. With w you can find the way via b to mb, for example wi'go (to say), wamgo (to dance) or weergo (to accommodate someone). The way via g to ng is used, among other things, with wargo (come), wurtaago (go out) and waddugo (bring). There is no clear rule here to assign stems to the permutation path. This is different with y . If the vowel is followed by an a , o or u , the path via j to nj is chosen, such as z. B. yargo (drink), yoofgo (let go / let go) or yuuwgo (pierce). Verbs like yi'go (to see) or yettugo (to thank) are examples of the permutation over g to ng before e and i . It is very useful (such as sometimes in Pulaar “unofficial” occurs) to use a v (more like w spoken and going to b, mb) next to the w (spoken more like u and permuting after g, ng) (Ex: warde > g, ng come, varde > b, mb kill).

Two-part permutation

1st volume level	2nd volume level	3rd volume level
f	p	p
H	k	k
s	c	c

The permutation occurs in different contexts.

Permutation in verbs

Since the endings of the conjugated verb in Fulfulde are the same for all persons, the permutation is used to distinguish between the persons of the singular and the plural.

mi wi'i - ɓ e mbi'i	I said - they said
o wari-on ngari	he / she came - you came
a yaran - en njaran	you will drink - we (incl.) will drink
mi yi'i - min ngi'i	I saw - we (excl.) saw
moota ranwi - defte ndanwi	the car is white - the books are white
a foofi - ɓ e poofi	you breathed - they breathed
o huli - on kuli	he was afraid - you were afraid
mi soodi - en coodi	I bought - we (incl.) bought

The input consonants b , d , g and j are not subject to the permutation, but are prenasalized in the plural of the verbs (a nasal sound is placed in front of the consonant):

mi dilli - ɓ e ndilli	I went away - they went away
a jalan - on njalan	you will laugh - they will laugh

Permutation in nouns

Every noun changes into a new class when changing from singular to plural. In most cases, this is accompanied by a change in the volume level and thus also a volume level permutation. Different noun derivatives of a word stem can also occur in different classes with different initial permutations.

Singular	class	Plural	class	meaning
wall	nd	bam ɗ e	ɗ e	ass
wookaandu	ndu	gookaali	ɗ i	Scream
jurum ɗ o	'O	yurum ɓ e	ɓ e	pitiful person
yenaande	nd	genaale	ɗ e	Grave, burial place
hasre	nd	cheese	ɗ e	Pile, pile
pemmboowo	'O	femmboo ɓ e	ɓ e	Barber, hair clipper
sonndu	ndu	colli	ɗ i	bird
demoowo	'O	remoo ɓ e	ɓ e	Arable farmer

The root SAS- will serve as an example for the derivation in different classes:

caski	the tree Faidherbia albida
sasre	the fruit of the tree
casal	the wood of the tree
casol	the root of the tree
cas ɗ e	Plural for trees, wood and fruit

Other sound shifts

Otherwise there are still sound shifts between y and s ( e.g. koyngal / kosngal Bein or leydi / lesdi Boden) or d and l ( e.g. ndaar / laar anucken or dawol / lawol Reise, Weg).

research

The so-called Fulistik , which was founded by August Klingenhaben , is now part of African studies .

literature

August Blade Lifting: The Language of the Ful . JJ Augustin , Hamburg 1963, ISBN 3-87030-041-8 . (describes the dialect of the Yoola region in the Adamawa Province in eastern Nigeria)
Martina Gajdos: Practical dictionary: German - Fulfulde, Fulfulde - German . AFRO-PUB, Vienna 2000, ISBN 3-85043-089-8 . (Publications of the Institute for African Studies and Egyptology at the University of Vienna; 89) (Articles on African Studies; Volume 66)

There are other books that deal with different dialects of the Fulfulde. Some of them are more linguistic in nature, others are more language courses. Père Dominique Noye edited a French language course in the Diamaré dialect and also collected proverbs and stories.

Web links

Wikipedia on Fulfulde

Wiktionary: Fulfulde - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

^ Heike Niederig: Educational institutions as reflected in the linguistic resources of African refugee youth. 2002, p. 7 f. On Themapool-Migration.eu ( PDF ; 467 KB), accessed on February 6, 2019.

^ Fulfulde, Maasina: A language of Mali. In: Ethnologue - Languages. From Ethnologue.com, accessed February 6, 2019.

↑ Overview map of the distribution of the Fulbe (Peul, Halpoular). From WorldTrek.org, accessed February 6, 2019.

↑ Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census national analytical report. Statistics Sierra Leone, October 2017, p. 89ff.

↑ Mamadou Niang: Pulaar-English / English-Pulaar Standard Dictionary.

^ Oumar Bā: Le Coran.

^ Yero Sylla: Grammatical Relations and Fula Syntax . 1979.

↑ For an overview, see for example Alexandra Rosa: Phylogenetic Structure of Guinea-Bissau Ethnic Groups for Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome Genetic Systems . Dissertation 2007, p. 49 ff.

↑ A. Achili et al .: American Journal of Human Genetics. 76/2005, pp. 883-886.

↑ Woɗaaɓe: Iwdi Fulɓe wano farba ADN faamiri ( Memento of the original from September 24, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2
^ The Alphabet That Will Save a People From Disappearing , Kaveh Waddell , Nov. 16, 2016, The Atlantic
↑ Randall Hasson: The Adlam Story - How Alphabet Changes Culture . Retrieved April 4, 2018.
↑ Deborah Bach: The Adlam Story - How Alphabet Changes Culture . Retrieved November 12, 2019.

[1] Heike Niederig: Educational institutions as reflected in the linguistic resources of African refugee youth. 2002, p. 7 f. On Themapool-Migration.eu ( PDF ; 467 KB), accessed on February 6, 2019.

[2] Fulfulde, Maasina: A language of Mali. In: Ethnologue - Languages. From Ethnologue.com, accessed February 6, 2019.

[3] Overview map of the distribution of the Fulbe (Peul, Halpoular). From WorldTrek.org, accessed February 6, 2019.

[4] Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census national analytical report. Statistics Sierra Leone, October 2017, p. 89ff.

[5] Mamadou Niang: Pulaar-English / English-Pulaar Standard Dictionary.

[6] Oumar Bā: Le Coran.

[7] Yero Sylla: Grammatical Relations and Fula Syntax . 1979.

[8] For an overview, see for example Alexandra Rosa: Phylogenetic Structure of Guinea-Bissau Ethnic Groups for Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome Genetic Systems . Dissertation 2007, p. 49 ff.

[9] A. Achili et al .: American Journal of Human Genetics. 76/2005, pp. 883-886.