Girolamo Fracastoro

Fracastorius is a redirect to this article. For the lunar crater see Fracastorius (moon crater) .

Girolamo Fracastoro

Titian : Girolamo Fracastoro , around 1528

Girolamo Fracastoro ( Latinized Hieronymus Fracastorius ; * around 1477 in Verona ; † August 6 or 8 , 1553 in Incaffi near Verona) was an Italian doctor, astronomer, poet and philosopher of the Renaissance with wide scientific interests: Among other things, he dealt with cosmology , Geology, pharmacology and biology.

His didactic poem Syphilis sive Morbus gallicus spread Fracastoro's reputation throughout Europe and gave syphilis its name. On the basis of observations of the course of infectious diseases, he developed a theory of infection by disease-transmitting "germs" (seminaria morbi) , which was in contrast to the idea of ​​disease-causing poisonous earth vapors ( miasms ), which has been accepted since ancient times . Fracastoro tried to interpret his observations rationally, without preconceived ideas.

Life

The main source of his biography is the anonymous vita , usually attributed to Paolo Ramusio, the son of the famous geographer Giovan Battista Ramusio .

Girolamo Fracastoro was born in Verona between 1476 and 1478 with fused lips that were surgically separated, the sixth of seven children of an old Veronese patrician family. His mother, Camilla Mascarelli from Vicenza , died before 1481. Fracastoro received a high humanistic education, went to high school in Padua and studied at the liberal University of Padua , which at that time belonged to Venice , among other things with the philosopher and humanist Pietro Pomponazzi . His main interests were first mathematics, astronomy and philosophy, and later the study of medicine. He must have met Copernicus there when he was studying medicine in Padua from 1501–1503. Even before his doctorate in 1502, he was appointed lecturer in logic, a position he held together with that of consiliarius anatomicus until 1509.

Probably because of the threat of war unrest, Fracastoro, at the invitation of the Condottiere Bartolomeo d'Alviano , went to his academy, which was opened in Pordenone , together with other Venetian poets and scholars, among them Pietro Bembo and Andrea Navagero , but stayed for a short time. da d'Alviano lost the Battle of Agnadello (May 14, 1509) against the League of Cambrai and was captured. The University of Padua had since been closed because of the chaos of the war. Fracastoro returned to Verona. His father had died some time before and he found his father's property devastated.

Girolamo Fracastoro

Fracastoro stayed in Verona all his life. Most of all, however, he loved his country house in the small town of Incaffi above Bardolino on the eastern shore of Lake Garda, the place of his philosophical dialogues. Fracastoro married Elena Schiavi from Vicenza early (around 1501) and had four sons with her, only one of whom survived him, and a daughter. He was accepted into the Veronese Medical College in 1505, to which he belonged for life and served on the board several times.

Practicing medicine is said to have been a passion for Fracastoro. His friends said that his greatest reward was to find a new friend in a healed patient. It wasn't about riches; he was satisfied with little, only wished for a life free from worry and quarrel so that he could pursue his studies. He was never idle and hated wasting time; it was his habit always to ponder problems in his mind. He seldom spoke like that and appeared serious and strict to strangers, but in small circles with friends he is said to have been cheerful and amiable.

The poet friends:
Andrea Navagero and Girolamo Fracastoro
Etching after the two Cavino bronze medals

Fracastoro made friends with the Veronese bishop Gian Matteo Giberti (1495–1543), who appointed him to his academy, the Gibertina , and made him his personal physician. He treated both its distinguished guests and poor people. The rest of the time he devoted to his studies, conversations and correspondence with friends, especially the brothers Raimondo, Marcantonio and Giambattista Delle Torre, with whom he had had a lifelong friendship since his studies in Padua, the Venetian poet Andrea Navagero (1483–1529) , Pietro Bembo (1470–1547), secretary to Pope Leo X and later cardinal under Paul III. , and Giovan Battista Ramusio (1485–1557), Chancellor and Secretary in the service of the Republic of Venice; Fracastoro honored the memory of all of them in poems, in dedications and as protagonists of his dialogues. Ramusio, for his part, honored Fracastoro and Andrea Navagero as poets and friends with two large bronze medals, executed by Giovanni Cavino , which he had placed in the city wall of Padua in 1552 above the Porta di San Benedetto not far from his house. Fracastoro, then over seventy years old, was depicted rejuvenated in order to match him in age to Navagero, who had died in 1529 at the age of 46.

His calm and spiritually free life was interrupted in 1545 when he was appointed official doctor of the Council of Trent. Fracastoro's council seems to have been firmly responsible for moving the council to Bologna in 1547 when a typhus epidemic broke out in Trento. This was criticized by the Protestant side as docility to the papal wishes, whether rightly is controversial.

Fracastoro maintained contacts with leading scholars and poets of his time. This is how he met Conrad Gesner; Ariosto asked him to read the Orlando Furioso critically ; Matteo Bandello sent him his story about the tragic death of two unhappy lovers, which Shakespeare used as a model for Romeo and Juliet . Fracastoro's portrait, painted by Titian and long falsely attributed to one of his students, was restored in 2012 and now hangs in the National Gallery in London. His death came as a surprise. Fracastoro died of a stroke in August 1553 at his country estate in Incaffi.

plant

One sheet of a manuscript

Title page of the first edition of Fracastoro's collected works, published
after his death in 1555

Fracastoro published little in his lifetime, and then only in his later years; this hardly allows a chronological classification.

The diversity of his interests is reflected in his writings: on astronomy ( Homocentrica and a treatise on cosmogony and cosmology , which is very different from and complementary to it ), on medical questions ( De contagione, De causis criticorum dierum and a few other writings), on psychology and epistemology (the dialogues Turrius sive De intellectione and Fracastorius sive De anima ), about aesthetics (the dialog Naugerius sive De poetica ), fragments about religion and nature observation. Fracastoro was interested in poetry all his life. Above all, his poems are worth mentioning: Syphilis sive Morbus gallicus and Joseph along with many others.

Peruzzi (1997) characterizes Fracastoro's philosophy, which underlies all of his work, as follows:

Fracastoro's worldview is based on his philosophical conviction of a fundamentally harmonious nature. He combines the idea of geocentric planetary orbits (shown in Homocentrica ) with the idea of ​​a "sympathia universalis", a universal affinity. His working method is based on observations and analyzes of physical conditions. Fracastoro also preserves this method for the study of psychological phenomena and problems of epistemology by taking up a theory of "species" (shape / appearance); the “species” present themselves, through exchange between bodies, through their ability to multiply and exert influence, as natural phenomena that reveal the presence of sympathia et antipathia, affinity / attraction and aversion / repulsion.

Fracastoro's theory of contagion (de contagione) grows out of it: It appears as an elegant combination of the theory of spontaneous generation (generatio spontanea) and the self- reproduction of the species within the framework of the vitalism of an anima mundi, a world soul that animates and animates the world up to and including their smallest volatile parts, the seminaria. The seminaria are regarded as living organisms, insofar as they participate in the universal process of self-generation and self-destruction of the cosmos. In this way, the natural reality becomes a unity: its internal processes influence each other and the observed phenomena can be traced back to them. Fracastoro deliberately excludes direct divine influence on natural phenomena. An influence of the stars is seen as a link between the heavenly and earthly worlds; great movements in space can affect human history and cause natural disasters and geological upheavals in the earth's crust. Likewise, conjunctions of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars, by disrupting the air and water spheres, are considered to be the origin of the infectious diseases. In addition to these distant causes - and thus weakening the influence of the stars - there are also more obvious, fleeting phenomena that can be recognized by medical observations. Fracastoro continues Pomponazzi's program of a rational explanation of natural phenomena; occult interpretations are being replaced by the concept of "latent phenomena" that cannot be explained for the time being.

The three philosophical dialogues (De poetica, De intellectione, De anima) are subject to a cognitive process that starts from individual observations, connects them by means of subnotio (in Fracastorio's terminology, this lies between sensory perception and understanding) and leads to the idea through abstraction. This process from the individual to the universal also applies to aesthetics, as set out in the Naugerius . The epitome of poetry and furor poeticus appears like a platonic path that leads via a progressive sublimation of the impression of a certain beauty to the pure abstraction of the idea of ​​a beauty per se .

Without a rational solution there remains the problem of the immortality of the human soul and its divinity. The soul arises from the harmony of the universe and the heavenly intelligence; it uses the body like an instrument and thus maintains a separate, non-body existence. However, a proof of the immortality of the soul exceeds the limits of rationality in the Aristotelian world of thought , within which nothing can be said about its immortality. The immortality of the soul can only be proven by reasoning on the theological level.

Fracastoro warns the shepherd Syphilus of the danger of contracting syphilis, engraving, around 1590.

Fracastoro's didactic poem Syphilis sive morbus gallicus (syphilis or the French disease), the writing of which he probably began in 1510, was praised several times by JC Scaliger as the best Latin poem of modern times until the 18th century. Since its first edition in 1530, over a hundred editions have appeared in at least six languages. This was due to his poetic quality and not just a description of a horrific and fascinating disease that plagued Italy after Columbus' travels to the New World. Fracastoro, however, did not assume that the syphilis had been brought in by Columbus' crew from America (III, 382-404), although he accepted that it was endemic there , but believed that it was spread in Italy by the army of Charles VIII of France during his Italian campaign, 1494. Fracastoro (III, 287-309) named the disease after the myth of the shepherd Syphilus, who turns away from the god Apollo and is punished with the disease. He also gives in this poem (III, 130-249) one of the earliest descriptions of the manners and customs of the indigenous peoples of America, whereby "the sublime America" ​​( alta Ammerie ; III, 134) and its inhabitants as particularly noble, close to nature, peaceful and be portrayed religiously.

Francastoro formulates his theory of contagion through seminaria contagionis or seminaria morbi (germs), which are too small to be visible, for the first time in poetic form .

In his major medical work De Contagione et contagiosis morbis et eorum curatione, libri tres , published by Junta in Venice in 1546 , he substantiates this theory with descriptions of the symptoms of various infectious diseases : apart from syphilis , which he deals with here from a scientific point of view, the clinical pictures (book II) and treatments (Book III) of typhus (febris lenticularis) , the plague (vero pestiferis febris) , tuberculosis (Phthisis contagiosa) , rabies ( rabies ) , leprosy and other skin diseases.

De Contagione is preceded by his main philosophical work, De sympathia et antipathia liber unus, which was neglected until recently . De sympathia and De Contagione are conceived together in the draft that has been preserved and only later published as “two separate, albeit related, works”. In De sympathia Fracastoro sets out his natural philosophy, which is decisive for his medical-scientific theory about contagion, which he developed in the introduction (book I) to De contagione . Fracastoro differentiates between three types of infection (contagionum) : Through direct contact from person to person, through indirect contact via porous carriers (fomes) , such as clothing, or over a certain distance through the air. He realized that usually a mode of infection is specific to an infectious disease. The transmission takes place through seminaria ("germs"), too small to be visible, of a colloidal nature. Because they can be transmitted from person to person, contagion differs from poisoning. An indirect transmission via fomites or through the air can only take place if the seminaria are stable for a certain time. Fracastoro writes that seminaria are capable of reproduction under suitable conditions. However, this does not mean that seminaria can be regarded as independent living pathogens in the modern sense of microorganisms , as is often claimed in the older literature.

The knowledge gained through his exact observations of the transmission of diseases caused Fracastoro to turn against the miasma theory of antiquity, the view of transmission through poisonous earth exhalations (miasms).

Close observations of Halley's Comet in 1531 revealed to Fracastoro (and independently from him Peter Apian ) that the comet's tail always points in the opposite direction to the sun.

When fossilized mussel shells were found during excavations for buildings in Verona in 1517 , Fracastoro declared that these shells once belonged to living animals and that there was no need for a “plastic force” that had the ability to transform rocks into animal shapes, as was generally believed. Fracastoro also argued against the notion that the biblical flood had washed the mussel shells - should it be admitted that they were such - into this place: in that case they would be scattered over a wide area and not buried in the depths. Charles Lyell wrote about it in 1830: “His [Fracastoros] clear and convincing account should have ended the argument forever, had it not been for some passion; [...] The clear ... views of Fracastorius, however, were disregarded, and the abilities and convincing reasons of the scholar were condemned to disappear for three centuries [in a fruitless argument]. "

Girolamo Fracastoros statue in Verona

reception

Two years after Fracastoro's death, in the session on November 21, 1555, the Verona Council decided by 45 votes against 13 to erect a statue in his honor. It was executed by Danese Cattaneo in marble from Lunigiana and erected in 1559 on the north-west archway of the Piazza dei Signori .

In his highly influential poetics textbook Poetices libri septem in the 16th century , Julius Caesar Scaliger placed Fracastoro in first place in his ranking of neo-Latin poets, ahead of Jacopo Sannazaro , followed by Marco Girolamo Vida , Angelo Poliziano , Pietro Bembo and Paolo Cerrato (1485–1540 ).

30 years after his death, Giordano Bruno makes Fracastoro a conversation partner in four of his five dialogues De l'infinito, universo e mondi (About the infinite, the universe and the worlds) .

The moon crater Fracastorius is named after him.

Editions and translations

Poemata omnia, 1718

Poems

• James Gardner (Ed.): Girolamo Fracastoro: Latin Poetry (= The I Tatti Renaissance Library , Volume 57). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Massachusetts) 2013, ISBN 978-0-674-07271-8 (Latin text and English translation)
• Jérôme Fracastor, La syphilis ou le mal français. / Girolamo Fracastoro, Syphilis sive morbus gallicus. Texts établi, trad., Prés. et annoté by Jacqueline Vons, "Les classiques de l'humanisme" 36, Les Belles Lettres, Paris 2011
• Didactic poem about syphilis / Girolamo Fracastoro ed. U. trans. v. G. Wohrle ; with a contribution by Dieter Wuttke to Sebastian Brant's Syphilis leaflet from 1496. - 2., exp. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1993.
• Girolamo Fracastoro: Syphilidis sive morbi gallici libri tres in the translation by Ernst Alfred Seckendorf (1892-1941), introduced by Walther Schönfeld , Lipsius & Tischer, Kiel 1960 (= series of publications by the Northwest German Dermatological Society, 6).
• Fracastoro's syphilis. Introduction, text, translations, and notes with a computer-generated word index by Geoffrey Eatough, ARCA Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers and Monographs 12, Francis Cairns, Liverpool 1984.
• Girolamo Fracastoro: Carmina. Introduzione, versione e note a cura di Francesco Pellegrini. Vita Veronese, Verona 1954.
• Theodor Lenz (Ed., Transl.) Hieronymi Fracastorii Syphilus sive morbus gallicus. Carmen. / Syphilus or Gallic Disease. Leipzig 1881.

cosmology

• Hieronymi Fracastorii Homocentricorum sive de stellis. In : Homocentrica, eiusdem de causis criticorum dierum per ea quae in nobis sunt. Venetiis 1538: 1r-70r. (?) (Editio princeps) (lat.); also in : Opera omnia, Venetiis, apud Juntas, 1555: 1r – 65v ; 1574; 1584: 1r-48r.

in addition :

Peruzzi, Enrico: La nave di Ermete: la cosmologia di Girolamo Fracastoro. Olschki, Firenze 1995

Ruths, Fredi: The homocentric system of spheres of Girolamo Fracastoro. Diss. Univ., Frankfurt am Main 1978

Medical writings

• Hieronymi Fracastori De causis criticorum dierum per ea quae in nobis sunt. In : Homocentrica, eiusdem de causis criticorum dierum per ea quae in nobis sunt. Venetiis 1538: 69r (?) - 77r. (lat.) (editio princeps); also in : Opera omnia, Venetiis, apud Juntas, 1555: 66r – 76v ; 1574; 1584: 48v-56r.
• De sympathia et antipathia rerum, liber unus. In : De sympathia et antipathia rerum, lib. I, De Contagione et contagiosis morbis eorumque curatione, libri III. Venetiis, apud heredes Lucaeantonii Iuntae Florentini, 1546. (editio princeps) (lat.); also in : Opera omnia, Venetiis, apud Juntas, 1555: 79r-104v ; 1574; 1584: 56v-76v.
• De sympathia et antipathia rerum, liber I / Girolamo Fracastoro. edizione critica, traduzione e commento a cura di Concetta Pennuto. National Institute for Studies on Rinascimento. Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 2008
• 'De sympathia et antipathia liber unus' by Girolamo Fracastoro. Introduction and translation by GE Weidmann. Juris-Verlag, Zurich 1979 (= Zurich medical history treatises. New series, vol. 129).
• De Contagione et contagiosis morbis et eorum curatione, libri tres. In : De sympathia et antipathia rerum, lib. I, De Contagione et contagiosis morbis eorumque curatione libri III. Venetiis, apud heredes Lucaeantonii Juntae Florentini, 1546 (editio princeps)
• Hieronymi Fracastorii. De Contagione et contagiosis morbis et eorum curatione, libri III. Translation and notes by Wilmer Cave Wright , GP Putnam's Sons, New York - London 1930
• Les trois livres de Jérôme Fracastor sur la contagion, les maladies contagieuses et leur traitement, traduct. et notes par Léon Meunier, Paris, Société d'éditions scientifiques, 1893 (lat., fr.) [on this Wright (1930) p. 348: '…, serious errors of interpretation,…']
• Hieronymi Fracastorii. De temperatura vini sententiam perpendens libellus. Venetiis, 1534. (editio princeps)
• Girolamo Fracastoro, Trattato inedito in prosa di Gerolamo Fracastoro sulla sifilide, Codice CCLXXV-I, Bibl. Capit. Di Verona, a cura di Francesco Pellegrini. Prefazione di L. Messedaglia, Verona, “La tipografica veronese” 1939

Philosophical dialogues

• Girolamo Fracastoro: Navagero della poëtica, Testo critico, traduzione, introduction e note a cura di E. Peruzzi, Firenze, Alinea Editrice 2005. (Latin, Italian) GVK entry with a link to the google preview.
• Naugerius sive de poetica dialogus. Transl. by Ruth Kelso, introd. by Murray W. Bundy. University of Illinois, Studies in Language and Literature vol.IX, no.3, Urbana 1924
• Turrius sive De intellectione dialogus. In : Opera omnia, Venetiis, apud Juntas, 1555 (editio princeps): 165r – 206v ; 1574; 1584: 121r-148v.
• Della torre ovvero l'intellezione / Girolamo Fracastoro; a cura di Anna Li Vigni. Mimesis, Milano cop. 2009
• Girolamo Fracastoro: Turrius or about knowledge / Turrius sive de intellectione. Edited, translated, introduced and annotated by Michaela Boenke. Humanist library, series II texts, vol. 35, Wilhelm Fink Verlag, Munich 2006
• L'anima. Introd., Testo critico, trad.Italiana, commento di Enrico Peruzzi, Casa Editrice Le Lettere, Firenze 1999

Different fonts

• Alcon sive de cura canum venaticorum. In : Hieronymi Fracastorii Veronensis Operum Pars Posterior. Lugduni apud Franciscum Fabrum. 1591: 42-47. [on this : Wright (1930) p. xlvii: '' Barbarani [Verona 1894] shows good reasons for rejecting it as spurious, ... " ]
• Alcone: ossia del modo di allevare i cani da caccia / Girolamo Fracastoro. [traduzione Gian Paolo Marchi]. Verona 1972 [A dialogue in verses between the master Alcon and his pupil Acasti about hunting dogs, their diseases and the means to cure them.]
• Scritti inediti di Girolamo Fracastoro, con introduzione, commenti e note a cura di F. Pellegrini. Valdonega, Verona 1955.
• Opera omnia. Venice 1555.

literature

• Hieronymi Fracastorii Vita. [Paolo Ramusio et al. Attributed to Adamo Fumano]. - In : Opera omnia, Venetiis, apud Juntas, 1555; 1574; 1584: no page number.

Ital. Translation in : Vita di Girolamo Fracastoro [traduzione da incerto autore del 16. Secolo: assegnato al Paolo Ramusio e Adamo Fumano]: con la versione di alcuni suoi canti. / [traduzione et edizione a cura di Francesco Pellegrini] Stamperia Valdonega, Verona 1952.

• Boenke, Michaela: Girolamo Fracastoro - life and work. - In : Turrius or about recognizing / Turrius sive de intellectione. Edited, translated, (...) by Michaela Boenke. Munich 2006
• Peruzzi, Enrico: Fracastoro, Girolamo. - In : Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani - Vol. 49, 543-548, 1997.
• Eatough, Geoffrey: Introduction - In : Fracastoro's Syphilis. Introduction, text, translations, and notes (…) by Geoffrey Eatough, Liverpool 1984
• Pellegrini, Francesco: Fracastoro. "Collana di vite di medici e naturalisti celebri." Monograph no.3, Trieste 1948
• Wright, Wilmer Cave: Introduction - In : Hieronymi Fracastorii. De Contagione et contagiosis morbis et eorum curatione, libri III. Translation and notes by Wilmer Cave Wright, GP Putnam's Sons, New York - London 1930: v-liv. - [Work summaries and extensive bibliography up to 1930 with critical comments]
• Barbarani, Emilio: Girolamo Fragastoro e le sue opere. G. Annichini, Verona 1894 LC Catalog Record: - [on this : Wright (1930) p. 349.]
• Ilg, Albert : A bust of Girolamo Fracastoro. - In : Yearbook of the Art History Collections of the Very Highest Imperial House, Vol. 5, 58-64, Vienna 1887.
• Pennuto, Concetta: Simpatia, fantasia e contagio: il pensiero medico e il pensiero filosofico di Girolamo Fracastoro. Ed. di Storia e Letteratura, Roma 2008. (Italian) GVK entry with a link to the table of contents:
• Roccasalva, Alessandro: Girolamo Fracastoro, astronomo, medico e poeta nella cultura del Cinquecento italiano. Nova Scripta Ed., Genova 2008
• Girolamo Fracastoro: fra medicina, filosofia e scienze della natura; atti del convegno internazionale di studi in occasione del 450o anniversario della morte, Verona, Padova 9 - 11 ottobre 2003 / a cura di Alessandro Pastore, Enrico Peruzzi. Olschki, Firenze 2006
• Weidmann, GE: Introduction - In : "De sympathia et antipathia liber unus" by Girolamo Fracastoro. Introduction and translation by GE Weidmann. Zurich, Juris-Verlag, 1979 ( Zurich medical historical treatises, new series, vol. 129) (German) GVK entry:
• Di Leo, Emilio: Scienza e umanesimo in Girolamo Fracastoro. 2. edizione. - Salerno: Tip. M. Spadafora, 1953 SWB entry
• Barbara I. Tshisuaka: Fracastoro, Girolamo. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 418.

Web links

Commons : Girolamo Fracastoro  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the catalog of the German National Library
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the Joint Union Catalog (GVK)
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the SWB online catalog
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the Bavarian Library Association (BVB)
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the literature database on the Middle Ages Regesta Imperii Mainz (RI-Opac)
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the British Library catalog
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the catalog of the Wellcome Library, London
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the catalog of the Système Universitaire de Documentation (SUDOC)
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the Catalogo del Polo BNCF (Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze)
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the Library of Congress (LC) online catalog
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro in the bibliographic database WorldCat
• Literature by and about Girolamo Fracastoro Digitized in the Internet Archive
• Portraits of Girolamo Fracastoro in the digital portrait index of the graphic portraits of the early modern period

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Barbara I. Tshisuaka: Fracastoro, Girolamo. In: Encyclopedia of Medical History. Edited by Werner E. Gerabek, Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil and Wolfgang Wegner, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 418; Encyclopædia Britannica
2. ↑ Wöhrle (1993), p. 7.
3. ^ Enrich Peruzzi: Fracastoro, Girolamo. In: Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani , Vol. 49, 1997, pp. 543-548.
4. ↑ Barbara I. Tshisuaka: Fracastoro, Girolamo. 2005, p. 418.
5. ↑ Barbara I. Tshisuaka: Fracastoro, Girolamo. 2005, p. 418.
6. ↑ Vita. Pellegrini (translator / ed.) Stamperia Valdonega, Verona 1952
7. ↑ J. Dunkerton et al. Burlington Mag., CLV, 2013, 4-15
8. ↑ Wright (1930) pp. Xxxvii – xl.
9. ↑ Burlington Magazine, Vol. CLV, January 2013, pp. 4-15.
10. ↑ Peruzzi (1997) p. 545.
11. ↑ In: Scritti inediti, F. Pellegrini (Ed.) (1955) pp. 275-337, cited in Peruzzi (1997) 546.
12. ↑ Peruzzi (1997) 546.
13. ↑ It remains unclear whether, or to what extent, Peruzzi equates the concept of "species" with that of "seminaria" .
14. ↑ Kempkens (1972) 88 emphasizes: “... Fracastoro does not believe in magical, but in mechanical effects of the heavenly bodies on the earth and its living beings - a view that confirms the law of gravitation and the knowledge of modern times as correct. (Change of tide, spring tide, etc.) "
15. ^ After Peruzzi (1997) 547.
16. ↑ Walther Ludwig: The modern literature since the Renaissance . In: Fritz Graf (ed.): Introduction to Latin Philology. Stuttgart / Leipzig 1997, pp. 323–356, here: 346.
17. ↑ Baumgartner u. Fulton (1935) cited in Eatough (1984) p.1.
18. ^ Fracastoro was compared to Virgil; Wright, 1930, pp. Xxix-xxxi.
19. ↑ This question is still controversial today; see: History of Syphilis
20. ↑ On the syphilis myth, see Eatough (1984) pp. 11–35 and Wöhrle (1993) pp. 7–21.
21. ↑ In addition, a fragment of a treatise on syphilis was transcribed and commented on by Pellegrini in: Scritti inediti, Pellegrini, ed. (1939)
22. ↑ Weidmann (1979)
23. ↑ Weidmann (1979) discusses this in detail.
24. ↑ Wright (1930) translates “seminaria” with “germs” ; Eatough translates “seminaria / semina” with “seeds” and calls them “creatures with a life of their own, capable of generation” (Eatough (1984), p.16). Weidmann (1979, 101) warns against translating “seminaria” at all, “because it would hardly be possible to find a suitable term from German or even from medical terminology that would not, because of its modern meaning, involve the risk of unjustified interpretations! " In the following, Weidmann discusses Fracastoros concept of the " seminaria " , their origin and mode of action and comes to the conclusion that they are " images "of the putrefaction of a contagious disease , that is, " material parts of this putrefaction " (Weidmann, 1979, 109-113) .
25. ^ Wright (1930) pp. 86/87.
26. ↑ Wright (1930) p. Xxxi and p. 34/35.
27. ↑ Weidmann (1979) pp. 8-9.
28. ↑ Alexander von Humboldt : Kosmos , Vol. I (1845), 107 ; Humboldt expresses himself precisely as follows: “[The Comet's tails] are, as (according to Édouard Biot in: Comptes Rendus T.XVI, 1843, p.751:) the Chinese astronomers noticed as early as 837, but in Europe they are Fracastoro and Peter Apian proclaimed only in a more definite way in the sixteenth century, it is turned away from the sun in such a way that the elongated axis goes through the center of the sun. "
29. ↑ Charles Lyell: “Principles of Geology” 1st ed. 1830, Vol.1 Ch.III, pp.23-24. Translation by Carl Hartmann, 1833 ; in English Original: (4th ed. 1835, Vol.1 Ch. III, p.33-34)
30. ↑ Vita. Pellegrini (translator / ed.) 1952, p. 20.
31. ↑ Book 6, chap. 4, ed. Lyon 1561, reprint Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt 1964, pp. 315b-317a; see. Ilse Reineke: Julius Caesar Scaliger's criticism of neo-Latin poets. Text, translation and commentary of Chapter 4 of Book VI of his Poetics , Munich 1988.
32. ↑ Giordano Bruno's five dialogues with an Italian summary can be found here  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .  
33. ↑ In addition to the “Vita”, Pellegrini takes into account the junta editions (1555 and following) of the opera omnia preceding the version, also that of the “Cominiana” (1739), of which he says it would be better drafted.
34. ↑ Today the bust is ascribed to Agostino Zoppo and referred to as "Portrait of a Paduan Scholar" (around 1550/60). Image database Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.