Ktunaxa

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Kutenai

The Ktunaxa , or Kutenai (in the US generally Kootenai ) are a group of seven North American Indian tribes living on the border between the US and Canada in the US states of Washington , Montana and Idaho and in the Canadian province of British Columbia .

The Canadian groups and today's First Nations refer to themselves as Ktunaxa (pronunciation: 'K-tuu-NA-cha' or 'Too-na-ha'). This word is probably derived from Kotona , the pronunciation of the tribal name Ktunxa by the Piegan-Blackfoot , other Plains tribes called them 'gentle people'. They called themselves 'People of the Waters' or 'People of the Lake'. The American groups and today's tribes refer to themselves as Ksanka ( Ksanka is derived from Ksahans-ʔaǩis - 'good marksmanship'), but today they usually refer to themselves officially as 'Kootenai'.

The Kutenai language, the Kutanaha , which is spoken by six of the seven tribes, does not belong to any of the major Indian language groups, but has similarities with the Algonquin and the Salish . A Kutenai tribe belongs to the latter group.

In 2008 there were over 1,200 Kootenay members in Canada and over 800 Kutenai in the USA .

history

Kutenai woman next to a canoe, Edward Curtis , 1910. These birch wood canoes were called Kootenay Canoes , or Sturgeon Nose Canoes because they had "noses" below the waterline in front and behind.

Early history

South arm of Kootenay Lake

Artifacts of the so-called Goatfell Complex , which was named after the Goatfell region around 40 km east of Creston on Highway 3 , were found in the Kutenai area . It is part of the Intermontane Stemmed Point tradition , in which a certain way in which projectile points were machined so that they could be permanently inserted into sticks is conductive. The majority of the finds were made in the wider area of ​​Creston, the most important sites are Harvey Mountain in the far north of Idaho , Negro Lake and Kiakho Lake near Lumberton and Cranbrook , North Star Mountain west of Creston. Only Blue Ridge at Kaslo, on the west bank of Kootenay Lake, is further away. The oldest pieces are 10 to 12,000 years old. The archaeologist believes Wayne Choquette that the lack of a technological breakthrough can be deduced that the Ktunaxa were already living at that time in the region. On the lower Columbia River , however, a completely different tool industry prevailed, known as the microblade tradition .

It is possible that the first tangible inhabitants with the receding ice armor migrated northwards at the end of the last Ice Age, a process that occurred from around 16,000 to 13,000 BC. Lasted. During this time, after a phase of severe erosion, a water system formed and vegetation covered and stabilized the earth's surface in the region in the form of a tundra landscape . Forest penetrated into this from the south. Between 8000 and 5000 BC BC the region was relatively dry and has numerous fires. Not until 3000 BC In the course of a cooling, dense forest spread out, a cool phase that lasted until around 500 BC. Stopped. Another, albeit less severe, dry phase followed between 500 and 1600, during which bison spread. The Little Ice Age followed in the 17th century, which was the coldest phase in the region since the last Ice Age, and in which the bison disappeared again.

The Goatfell Complex was followed by the Bristow Complex (approx. 6000 to 3000 BC), probably as a reaction to the ecological changes. In the phase after that, which lasts until about 500 BC. A significant increase in the proportion of fish in the diet can be seen ( Kettle Lake Complex ). The sites are mostly on terraces above the waters of that time. The simultaneous Kikomun Complex is more likely to be assigned to groups whose hunt was predominantly deer. After about 500 BC The population increased, as suggested by mounds of bones and broken stones that had been used for cooking.

Originally, the Kutenai may have lived east of the Rocky Mountains , all the way to what is now Fort MacLeod in the province of Alberta . Oral tradition points to a wandering west from Lake Michigan six hundred years ago . Then they lived on the Tobacco Plains on the Kootenay River in Montana and British Columbia. The group split at an unknown point in time. This is how the Upper Kutenai came into being , whose way of life continued to be strongly influenced by buffalo hunting , whereas the Lower Kutenai became or remained sedentary and lived on game, berries and roots, but especially on fish. Oral tradition knows of the arrival of the horse, which took place around 1730, but also of wars with the neighbors in which a group that lived near what is now Pincher Creek perished . The bison hunters roamed the Rocky Mountains three times a year since they had horses. As a traditional area, today's Ktunaxa claim an area of ​​around 70,000 km² with recourse to this period.

Upper Kutenai

The Jennings Band or Agiyinik , which was one of the Upper Kutenai, formed a tribe of around 700 members around 1850. They first lived around Jennings in Montana, migrated eastwards to the area of what later became Kalispell , then southwards to Elmo . Their descendants today live in the Flathead Reservation (Flathead Indian Reservation) in Montana. Another group of the Upper Kutenai, the Tobacco Plains Band or Aganahonek , now lives in Canada, a third group, the Tweed Warlands or Agukuatsuking lived on the Kutenai between Tweed and Warland, but they have disappeared. Another group, the Libby Montana , moved to the Fort Steele area near Cranbrook in British Columbia. Before 1855, the Libby and Jenning Band moved to Upper Flathead Lake in Montana.

Lower Kutenai

The Lower Kutenai were also known as the 'Canoe Indians', or 'Arc-à-plats' because they had wide, flat arches. They were also called scalicises . One of the groups based at Bonners Ferry , Idaho , moved to Creston , British Columbia. Other Lower Kutenai from Arrow Lakes on Columbia became part of the Senijextee , an inland Salish people. But a war broke out and the group moved to Kootenay Lake in British Columbia. The few that remained moved to the Colville Reservation in north central Washington.

Fur traders, smallpox, the end of the bison hunt

In July 1807, David Thompson of the North West Company moved through the Kutenai Territory. Two of them met Thompson at what is now Fort Edmonton . Thompson had the Kootenay House built north of Lake Windermere . At this time the Kutenai introduced their knowledge of horse keeping to other tribes, but they were subject to battle. Even in the days of the North West Company, smallpox reached the tribes and killed many of their members. In addition, most of the buffalo disappeared before 1830 , so that the previously nomadic Ktunaxa also switched to salmon . With the creation of the border between Canada and the United States (1846), their tribal territory was divided, and the two southern groups that were now part of the United States were given small reservations.

Missionaries, contract negotiations

Mission Church of St. Eugene, after 1900

Jesuits like Pierre-Jean De Smet , who settled with the Kutenai, were successful in their missionary work, preceded by Iroquois missionaries. Some Jesuits learned their language, like Father Fouquet from the Oblates (Oblati Mariae Immaculatae). The corporal punishment replaced the Ktunaxa form of punishment, the public humiliation. A new understanding of sin penetrated, in which the transferring and getting rid of a sin by confession , which was strange for the Indians, initially destabilized the old morality. When the land was divided up and reservations were established, Fouquet used his right of first refusal and founded the St. Eugene Mission.

In the lower Flathead Valley , the St. Ignace mission station was built, to which some Kutenai moved in 1855 due to marriage contacts with local settlers. Washington Territory Governor Isaac Ingalls Stevens met with Kutenai, Flathead, and Kalispel at Hell Gate, near Missoula , earlier this year . But the chief of the Tobacco Plain Kutenai, Edward or Edwald, was not present. He had originally been the chief of the entire group before it split into the Upper and Lower Groups. A Tobacco Plains group under Michelle was present, however, who hoped for a large Kutenai reserve. As she was disappointed, she moved to Canada. The Lower Kutenai no longer saw themselves represented at all and remained without recognition (non-treaty status).

At that time, in 1855, the Kutenai had only 500 members, 130 fewer than John Warner Dease of the Hudson's Bay Company had estimated in 1827 .

Reserves, brief gold rush, Fort Steele

With the Indian Act of 1876, elected chiefs and councils were introduced in Canada, but the right to vote on the political level outside the tribe was only granted to Indians who waived their status. Peter O'Reilly negotiated with the Ktunaxa Reservations, which were later revised slightly. Many Ktunaxa initially refused to go to the reservations. They also continued to practice customs and rituals, such as the sun dance - however, they lacked the element of ostentatious insensitivity to pain - until the First World War .

By gold discoveries at the time still Stud Horse called Wild Horse River in 1864 there was a brief gold rush, like the Fraser and in the Cariboo region . When the American prospector Dan Drumheller came to the area on June 15, 1,500 other prospectors were plowing the creek, and 200 new ones were added every day. Within a short time the gold stores were exhausted and in 1882 only 11 men were still living by the stream.

A group of Kutenai in front of their tipis, Chief Isaac Adama among them, after 1887

During the Kootenay Gold Rush of 1864, the first farm on Wild Horse Creek was called Galbraith's Ferry , named after Robert LT Galbraith. He had preferred to set up a ferry that stayed in service until 1888 when a bridge was built. The settlers cultivated vegetables, especially plums, apples, pears and cherries. The small settlement was renamed Fort Steele in 1888 , after the superintendent of the North-West Mounted Police Samuel Benfield (Sam) Steele (1849-1919), who managed to find a balance between Chinese and British settlers and Ktunaxa. Since 1961 the fort has been part of the province's cultural heritage as a heritage site .

Joseph's Prairie, First Police Post, Sam Steele and Isidore

Sam Steele

It came in 1887 between Colonel James Baker and the Ktunaxa to disagreements over Joseph's Prairie , an area on which the place Cranbrook stands today. This place was an important meeting place for the Indians. Fearing a riot, the settlers called the North-West Mounted Police for help, which sent 75 men. The force built the first NWMP post west of the Rocky Mountains . Their guide Steele stated that in 1884 two sons of the chief of "Chief Isadore's band" had been arrested on charges of murdering two gold diggers. As a result, the father and several warriors freed the prisoners from prison. The leader of the police force had the murder investigated. Chief Isidore handed over his sons to him, who were acquitted shortly afterwards. Steele also succeeded in mediating between the settlers and Ktunaxa in the land dispute, whereupon the community, after the withdrawal of the police force in the summer of 1888, applied to change the place name to Fort Steele.

Changed infrastructure, assimilation policy

A Ktunaxa employed on a paddle steamer on the Columbia, 1887

The gold discoveries at Findlay and Wild Horse Creek , which miners brought to the remote area, plus the densification of the infrastructure, changed the life of the Ktunaxa. The children from connections between the settlers and Kootenay women also lost their status as Indians and soon no longer counted among them. Tribesmen who no longer lived on the reservation or who were in the USA could also lose their status. Soon passports were introduced that allowed and controlled leaving the reserve or the province at the same time.

In addition, with the growing fishing industry in Lower Columbia, salmon stocks declined. In addition, new dams along the large rivers robbed the groups known as "bands" of their food sources, because the salmon could no longer migrate upstream to spawn.

But the interventions should go even deeper. The Moyie silver mine made so much profit that Father Coccola was able to build a new church. The residential schools were also introduced here. So the children went to St. Eugene's Mission Residential School , where they were not allowed to use their mother tongue. In addition, children came from far away, such as from the Yukon Territory .

Around 1900 the timber industry penetrated the area and destroyed another livelihood of the tribes. The Ktunaxa resisted further area reductions by the McKenna-McBride Commission for the first time together with other tribes.

The Ktunaxa were able to adapt to the new conditions comparatively successfully. Around 1200 Kutenai are believed to have lived around 1780. In 1905 there were around 1,100, of which almost exactly half were in the USA and the other half in Canada.

World War II, Veterans Supply vs. Indian status

During the Second World War, a disproportionately large number of Ktunaxa men volunteered for military service, which the Indian agents asked them to do. But they were cheated of the benefits of veteran supplies, which they could only get if they gave up their Indian status. Representatives from Indian Affairs resided in Vernon and represented the Indians of the Okanagan district in addition to the Ktunaxa.

The Kootenai Tribe of Idaho

The Kutenai in the Flathead Reservation took a different development . In 1881 they had 395 members, but their number grew through immigration from Bonners Ferry and Libby. The Bonners Ferry Kutenai refused to go to the Flathead Reservation. They were given private land in 1895, eighty acres per family. The Kootenai Tribe of Idaho emerged from this group, which originally only numbered 99 people .

Resistance

In Canada

The election of Nisga'a leader Frank Calder also encouraged the Ktunaxa to claim their land rights. When the residential schools were dissolved in the late 1960s , the Ktunaxa children soon went to a school in Cranbrook .

But after about three quarters of a century of incapacitation, the Ktunaxa not only tried to get their children back into their own hands, but also to enter the political plane. This is how the Kootenay Indian District Council came into being . But the Master Tuition Agreement still ensured that federal funds flowed to the province as long as Indians lived on reservations and went to school there. But the Indians had no influence on the use of the money, which was usually transferred on September 30th. Therefore, the Lower Kootenay Community founded its own school, soon also the St. Mary's Band . The Indian Affairs office in Vernon was closed after a sit-in . The Kootenay Indian District Council became the Kootenay Indian Area Council . In the 1990s, the tribal group developed the Ktunaxa / Kinbasket Independent School System Society (KKISS) in order to finally gain influence on the teaching content and the organization. When the First Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC) was established, KKISS also sent a delegate.

In the 1980s, the Ktunaxa Nation Land Claim Declaration was made to Ottawa as a self-government and land claim . At the end of the 1990s, the Ktunaxa were one of the first groups to achieve an investigation into the alcohol issue, supported by public funds. This is how the Community Healing and Intervention Program (CHIP) was born , the first of its kind in Canada.

In the USA

In 1960, the Idaho Kootenai enforced compensation for the 1,160,000 acres of traditional land they had ceded. The court set it at $ 425,000 .

In 1974, the Idaho-based Kootenai attracted attention when the 67 members, led by Amy Trice, declared war on the United States. The reason was the government's handling of the Hell Gate Treaty of 1855, in which the Kootenai had their land taken in their absence. In 1962 the government offered the tribe 36 cents per acre , but calculated the land value according to the status of 1855. The living conditions were so poor that one of the elders, Moses Joseph, froze to death in his house. The Indian nation now claimed a reservation and demanded a usage fee from every vehicle that passed through. Interior Minister Cecil Andrus then ordered around 70 police officers. Senator James McClure and Congressman Steve Symms flew to Bonners Ferry. The Kootenai received a small reserve, an access road, a sick bay, new houses and a water supply and sewer system. In 2008 a documentary was made under the title "Idaho's Forgotten War" (Idaho's Forgotten War).

As with many Indian groups, Salish and Kutenai speakers also try to pass on their languages. Since there is a decline in handwriting with the decline of their languages, representatives of the two language groups developed their own keyboard that covers both alphabets. They hope to be able to strengthen the use of their written languages.

To revive the culture, the Confederate Salish and Kootenai were granted the right to hunt buffalo again north of Yellowstone National Park in parts of the Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness .

Today's First Nations and Tribes

Of the seven tribes of the Ktunaxa, five live (lived) in southeastern British Columbia and neighboring Alberta in Canada (linguistically four, because the Shuswap Indian Band was allied and related to the Ktunaxa, but linguistically they belonged to the Secwepemc ), two in the US states of Idaho and Montana.

In Canada

Ktunaxa Nation Council (KNC) (until 2005 Ktunaxa / Kinbasket Tribal Council (K / KTC) )

  • ? Akisq'nuk First Nation ( Akisqnuk First Nation , ʔakisq̓nuk or ? Akisq'nuk - 'place of two lakes', formerly known as Columbia Lake Band , live on the upper reaches of the Columbia and Kootenay Rivers, their administrative seat Akisqnuk is in the north of the reserve area directly south of Windermere , in the south it extends to Fairmont Hot Springs, in the west it is bounded 14 km by the shores of Windermere Lake and in the east by the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, reserves: Columbia Lake # 3, St. Mary's # 1A, approx 33 km², population: 264)
  • Tobacco Plains Band ( Akan'kunik , also ʔakink̓umⱡasnuqⱡiʔit or ʔa · kanuxunik - 'People of the place of the flying head', live near Grasmere , which is on the east bank of Lake Koocanusa below the mouth of the Elk River , approx. 15 km north of the Border between British Columbia and Montana, reservations: St. Mary's # 1A, Tobacco Plains # 2, approx. 44 km², population: 165)
  • St. Mary's Band ( ʔaq̓am or ʔaq̓amniʔk - 'deep dense woods', live along the St. Mary's River near Cranbrook , their administrative headquarters are in the most populous reservation, Kootenay # 1 , along the right bank of the Kootenay River at the mouth of the St. Mary's River, across from Fort Steele, Reserves: Bummers Flat # 6, Cassimayooks (Mayook) # 5, Isidore's Ranch # 4, Kootenay # 1, St. Mary's # 1A, approx. 79 km², population: 357)
  • Lower Kootenay Band ( Yaqan nuʔkiy , Yaqaón Nuñkiy or Ya qannu ki - 'where the rock stands'), the administrative headquarters is in the most populous reservation Creston # 1 along the right bank of the Kootenay River, about 6 km north of the US-Canadian Border, reservations: Creston # 1, Lower Kootenay # 1A, # 1B, # 1C, # 2, # 3, # 5, # 4, St. Mary's # 1A, approx. 26 km², population: 214)
  • Shuswap Indian Band (called themselves Tsqwatstens-kucw ne Casliken - 'people between two mountain ranges', part of the Shuswap Indian Band, the 'Kinbasket Shuswap Band', moved to the Upper Columbia River Valley in the 18th century at the latest, where they allied with the Stoney and Kutenai, with the latter they entered into many mixed marriages and became part of the Kutenai as Kyaknuqⱡiʔit or Kisamni , but ethnically and linguistically largely belong to Secwepemc , the most populous reservation Shuswap IR is located in the Columbia Valley of the Rocky Mountain Trench on the left bank of Upper Columbia River, east of the Selkirk Mountains , approx. 1.6 km north of Invermere , which lies directly on the northwestern shore of Windermere Lake, reservations: St. Mary's # 1A, Shuswap IR, approx. 12 km², population: 244) - also member of the Shuswap Nation Tribal Council (SNTC)

In the USA

Kootenai Tribal Council

  • Kootenai Tribe of Idaho ( ʔaq̓anqmi or ʔa · kaq̓ⱡahaⱡxu , live in the Kootenai Indian Reservation in the middle of Boundary County in northwest Idaho near the County Seat Bonners Ferry , around 40 km south of the border, the tiny reservation covers only 0.076575 km² and was in Year 2000 inhabited by 75 people)

Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation

  • Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation ( K̓upawi ¢ q̓nuk or Ksanka Band , live near Elmo in the Flathead Reservation in western Montana , which lies between Kalispell and Missoula , just west of the North American continental divide . The reservation is home to the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation , to whose four historical tribes the Ksanka Band belongs, approx. 5,058 km², approx. 6,800 registered tribesmen, an estimated further 3,700 live in the vicinity of the reservation)

The Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation

  • Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation (a group of the Lower Kutenai from the Arrow Lakes on Columbia joined the Senijextee (also known as the 'Arrow Lakes Band' or 'Lake'), who are part of the inland Salish but moved after a war Most of them went to Kootenay Lake in British Columbia; those who stayed behind moved as a tribal group of the Senijextee to the Colville Reservation in the upper Columbia Basin in northern Washington state and formed one of the twelve historic tribes of today's Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation , approx. 2,100 km², there are a total of approx. 9,000 registered tribal members)

language

The Kutenai are of particular interest to linguists because of their unique language . According to the US census of 2000, there were 815 Kutenai in the US alone. In both states together, around 220 Kutenai still spoke their traditional language.

In 2009, only 24 speakers lived in the Canadian groups, the youngest being 72 years old. In 2002 there were 48. There has been a language learning program there since 1999, which has been offered via its own broadband network since 2007. The program is based on four language teaching centers. 2,487 words and 849 phrases are now available through FirstVoices , a website with a database for many of North America's indigenous languages .

Place names

Various locations were named after the Kutenai, such as the Kootenay River , which flows through British Columbia , Montana and Idaho , Kootenay Lake in British Columbia, the Kootenai Mountains and Kootenai Falls in Montana, Kootenai County in Idaho and a village in Bonner County , Idaho (see Kootenai (Idaho) ). There is also the Kootenay National Park in the far east of British Columbia and the Kootenai National Forest in Montana and Idaho.

See also

literature

  • Wayne Choquette: Early remains in the Kootenay Region , in: R. Carlson (Ed.): Proceedings of a Symposium on Early Cultures in BC, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press 1996
  • Wayne Choquette: Archeological Overview Assessment of the Waldo North Grassland Restoration Demonstration Project , Yahk, British Columbia, 2005
  • John Corner: Pictographs in the Interior of British Columbia , 1968
  • Robert H. Ruby / John A. Brown: A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest , University of Oklahoma Press 1992, pp. 99-101
  • MS Dryer: Grammatical relations in Ktunaxa (Kutenai) . Voices of Rupert's Land, Winnipeg 1996

Web links

Commons : Kootenai (tribe)  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Remarks

  1. ↑ The Ktunaxa ( Memento of the original from November 15, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.multiculturalcanada.ca
  2. ^ Brief History of the People
  3. ↑ Kootenay Bark Canoes , Canadian Museum of Civilization
  4. ^ Roy L. Carlson, Luke Robert Dalla Bona: Early human occupation in British Columbia , 1996, p. 47ff.
  5. ↑ Choquette: Archeological Overview , p. 6.
  6. ↑ Cf. Fort Steele, history ( Memento of the original from June 4, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / files.fortsteele.ca
  7. ↑ Photos of the meeting place and other images from the late 19th century can be found here ( Memento of the original from February 22, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / files.fortsteele.ca
  8. ↑ In 1887 Little Isadore  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. photographed.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / files.fortsteele.ca  
  9. ↑ Leah Andrews: Idaho's forgotten was. The three-day war in Idaho's Panhandle that created a reservation and saved a people ( Memento from March 24, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
  10. ↑ Tim Woodward: Remember the Kootenai Tribe's struggle against the feds in 1974? Now's your chance to learn , in: The Idaho Statesman, May 22, 2008.
  11. ↑ Tribal languages, at your fingertips , in: Lake County, Leader & Advertiser, August 31, 2006 ( Memento of September 8, 2008 in the Internet Archive ).
  12. ↑ Sean Reichard: Crow Tribe Wants to Join Tribal Hunts of Yellowstone Bison. Article on yellowstoneinsider.com, February 16, 2018, accessed February 18, 2020.
  13. ↑ Ktunaxa Nation ( Memento of the original from August 4, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ktunaxa.org
  14. ↑ ? Akisq'nuk First Nation ( Memento of the original from July 28, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / akisqnuk.org
  15. ^ First Peoples Language Map -? Akisq'nuk First Nation
  16. ↑ Source for population: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), Registered Population as of June, 2011 ( Memento of the original from December 5, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / pse5-esd5.ainc-inac.gc.ca
  17. ↑ Tobacco Plains Band ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.tobaccoplains.org
  18. ↑ Aboriginal Canada - First Nation Connectivity Profile ( Memento of the original from February 6, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca
  19. ↑ Aqam - St. Mary's Band
  20. ^ Lower Kootenay Band - The Yaqan Nukiy
  21. ^ Shuswap Indian Band
  22. ↑ derived from Kenpesq't - 'reaching for the highest part of the sky' or 'touching the sky close to heaven', the name of several of their chiefs: Yelhellna Kinbasket (originally from Adams Lake), his son Paul Ignatious Kinbasket and grandson Pierre Kinbasket
  23. ↑ Shuswap Nation Tribal Council (SNTC) ( Memento of the original from April 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.shuswapnation.org
  24. ↑ Kootenai Tribe of Idaho
  25. ↑ Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation
  26. ↑ The Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation ( Memento of the original from April 15, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.colvilletribes.com
  27. ^ First Voices. Ktunaxa Community Portal
  28. ↑ Virtual elder rekindles hope for revival of Canadian aboriginal language , July 27, 2009
  29. ↑ The article also pays tribute to the relevant field research by the originally German-speaking linguist Paul Lucian Garvin (Paul Garvin), 1919 - 1994. Vita Garvins, in Persecuted German-speaking Linguists .