Czechoslovakia nuclear program

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Nuclear power plants and research reactors in Czechoslovakia (as of 1989)

The nuclear program of Czechoslovakia was a civil program to promote the use of nuclear energy , which was operated from the mid-1950s and was taken over by the successor states after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1992. It included efforts to supplement the country's energy supply with electricity and heat from nuclear power plants . The program was closely from the beginning to the nuclear program of the Soviet Union is linked and fully in the economic space of from the 1970 CMEA integrated -Staaten.

Beginnings

Shortly after the end of the Second World War , the then Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts decided in a memorandum on July 14, 1946 about the establishment of an institute for atomic physics . The newly established laboratory for nuclear physics ( Laboratoř pro nukleární fysiku ČAVU ) was headed by Václav Petržílka. Because research results in the field of nuclear research were strictly confidential and not available at that time, the aim was to construct a research reactor with our own resources. The laboratory succeeded in processing uranium, a theoretical calculation model of a reactor was worked out and the company Chemoprojekt developed a process for the production of heavy water and graphite .

1953 presented Dwight D. Eisenhower as part of his speech Atoms for Peace before the UN General Assembly his ideas of peaceful uses of nuclear energy. This was followed by the atomic energy conference in Geneva from August 8 to 20, 1955. Even before the planned conference, the Soviet Union offered its allies cooperation in the field of the peaceful use of nuclear energy in the mid-1950s.

With a government decision of June 10, 1955, the government committee for research and peaceful uses of nuclear energy ( Vládní výbor pro výzkum a mírové využití jaderné energy ) was established. In the same year, the committee founded the Institute for Nuclear Physics ( Ústav jaderné fyziky ), which was located in Řež near Prague . In June 1955, an agreement was signed between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union , on the basis of which the first research reactor and a cyclotron were built in Řež in a short time of two years . The reactor was a water-moderated and cooled research reactor of the type VVR-S , which was operated with uranium enriched to 10% and had a nominal output of 2 MW. On September 24, 1957, shortly before midnight, the reactor reached criticality for the first time .

In the same year, the Faculty of Technical Physics and Nuclear Physics ( Faculty technické a jaderné fyziky ) was established at the Charles University in Prague . In the following years, together with the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, founded in 1952, it was the defining educational institution in the field of nuclear energy in Czechoslovakia. In August 1959 the faculty was transferred to the Czech Technical University . The Middle School for Nuclear Technology ( Střední průmyslová škola jaderné techniky ) was established in Prague for the training of medium-sized skilled workers .

With a government decision of April 29, 1959, the Commission for Atomic Energy ( Komise pro atomovou energii ) was established at the State Committee for the Development of Technology. This committee was abolished in 1962 and replaced by the State Commission for Development and Coordination of Research and Technology (SKVT). The Atomic Energy Commission was renamed the Czechoslovak Atomic Energy Commission (ČSKAE) and received the status of a standing committee of the SKVT for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. The task of ČSKAE was the coordination of the Czechoslovak nuclear program and the representation of Czechoslovakia in the Standing Commission for the Peaceful Use of Atomic Energy of the Comecon and at the International Atomic Energy Agency . In 1968 the ČSKAE became a federal administrative authority and also took over the function of the nuclear supervisory authority.

Nuclear power plant A-1

In May 1956, another intergovernmental agreement was signed with the Soviet Union on cooperation in the construction of the first Czechoslovak nuclear power plant A-1. The heavy water reactor KS-150 , which was cooled with carbon dioxide and operated with natural uranium, was selected as the reactor for the power plant . Similar to the East German nuclear power plant Rheinsberg, the power plant belonged to the first generation of research and test power plants for energy generation and was supposed to test the economic feasibility of a reactor operated with natural uranium in an experimental way. In Czechoslovakia one of the several available reactor concepts was tested experimentally.

On May 1, 1957, the Ministry of Energy founded the state-owned operation of the Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant , which took on the role of client. Hydrostav Bratislava was selected as the main contractor for the construction area and the Škoda works in Pilsen for the technological area . Energoprojekt Praha took on the task of general project developer . The reactor type was developed by the Soviet Alichanow Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics, which also took over the scientific supervision of the project. Škoda developed the detailed planning templates with technical support from LOTEP, the Leningrad department of the Soviet planning office Teploelektroprojekt.

Already in the initial phase it turned out that the Soviet reactor concept was not fully developed for practice. After a few meetings of Czechoslovak and Soviet specialists and after the preparation of the expertise of the technical project A1 , it became clear that the Czechoslovak participation will not be limited to the technological implementation of the finished technical documents, but that extensive research and development work will be necessary. After this result, the central state organs first lost their enthusiasm for nuclear energy. The project was only resumed in 1958 through lobbying by the Škoda works. The production of the reactor was incorporated into the state economic plans from 1964 and the completion of the power station was unrealistic set for 1968. In reality, the network synchronization did not come about until 1972. For the development work including the associated investments, approx. 700 million crowns were spent from the state treasury , which was around 40% of the total costs of the power plant.

To ensure the experimental work and measurements, the Škoda water-moderated research reactor ŠR-0A was developed and built at the end of the 1960s. It was the first reactor designed and manufactured in Czechoslovakia. The reactor had a maximum power of 100 W and was operated with Soviet EK-10 uranium nuclear fuel enriched to 10%. It was built in Vochov and operated by the reactor physics department of the nuclear power plant construction company of the Škoda works. The reactor reached criticality for the first time on April 27, 1970 and was converted into the ŠR-0 research reactor in 1975 as part of the reorientation of research work.

Reorientation towards pressurized water reactors of the VVER type

At the end of the 1960s, the concept of the gas-cooled heavy water reactor was abandoned and the Czechoslovak nuclear program was reoriented towards pressurized water reactors of the VVER-440 type . At the same time as the construction of the first nuclear power plant with VVER technology, an accident occurred in the A1 nuclear power plant on February 22, 1977. When changing the fuel, residues of the desiccant silica gel were forgotten on a newly added fuel rod . This led to a local blockage of the coolant circuit and, as a result, to a local core meltdown of some fuel assemblies. It was already clear in the first half of 1978 that operations could not be resumed for economic or technical reasons.

Role of Czechoslovakia in the COMECON framework

In order to involve the countries of the Eastern Bloc in research work in the field of nuclear technology, the United Institute for Nuclear Research was founded in Dubna near Moscow in 1956 as an intergovernmental organization . In 1960, within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the Standing Commission for the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy was established with its seat in Moscow. The international economic organizations Interatomenergo (1973, based in Moscow) worked in close connection with the Comecon bodies for the construction of nuclear power plants, and Interatominstrument (1972, based in Warsaw) for the construction of nuclear equipment.

The highly industrialized Czechoslovak economy was currently one of the few in the Eastern Bloc able to take on the production of heavy components for the nuclear power industry. In May 1974, an intergovernmental agreement was signed between the Czechoslovak Republic and the USSR on the participation of Czechoslovak companies in the manufacture of components for nuclear power plants. Czechoslovakia was thus obliged to deliver nuclear power plant components including the reactors and parts of the primary sector in RWG countries (there were four reactors of the type WWER-440 / V213 for the Hungarian nuclear power plant Paks , two more for the east German nuclear power plant Greifswald and two reactors of the VVER-1000 type for the Belene nuclear power plant in Bulgaria). Of particular importance is the agreement on the versatile production specialization and cooperation and the mutual supplies of equipment for nuclear power plants for the period 1981-90, which during the XXXIII. Meeting of Comecon in July 1979 in Moscow was signed. Czechoslovakia also participated in the construction of the Soviet Khmelnytskyi nuclear power plant , the corresponding contract with the Soviet Union was signed on March 29, 1979.

State of the Czechoslovak nuclear industry

Dukovany nuclear power plant

The Czech state of Czechoslovakia has traditionally been one of the areas with a highly developed mechanical engineering industry . After the Czechoslovak companies and research institutions successfully built the first A1 research and test power plant in Bohunice, the Comecon expected extensive involvement of Czechoslovak organizations in the production of nuclear power plants with Soviet-type VVER reactors . At the beginning of the 1970s, the construction of the first nuclear power plants with reactors of the VVER-440/230 type began, including in 1973 the V1 nuclear power plant in Jaslovské Bohunice . Such great demands were placed on the Czechoslovak industry. On the one hand, the companies had to meet the requirements of the construction project for the V1 nuclear power plant and, on the other hand, they were obliged to deliver nuclear power plant components to other Comecon countries. A whole part of the Czechoslovak industry was therefore complexly restructured for nuclear energy.

The Czech mechanical engineering groups that were involved in the nuclear energy program include the Škoda group , which, together with the energy engineering company ( Závod energetické strojírenství kp Škoda Plzeň ), manufactured the nuclear reactors and turbo sets and assembled them on site. The Škoda Power Plant Construction Company ( Závod výstavba elektráren ) assumed the role of main contractor for the technology sector. Between 1980 and 1992, ZES Škoda delivered 21 sets of reactors of the type VVER-440 / V213 (four for units 1 - 4 of the Paks nuclear power plant , two for the V2 nuclear power plant in Bohunice, four for the Dukovany nuclear power plant, four for the Żarnowiec nuclear power plant and three for units 5, 7 and 8 of the Greifswald nuclear power plant ) and three sets of reactors of the VVER-1000 / V320 type (two for the Temelín nuclear power plant and one for the Belene nuclear power plant ). Other important manufacturers were Vítkovice (steam generators, volume compensators and fittings for the reactors), Sigma Lutín (main circulation pumps), Sigma Modřany (pipes).

At the end of the 1970s, Škoda started producing VVER 440 reactors. At the same time, on November 15, 1976, an agreement on the further cooperation and development of nuclear energy was signed between the Czechoslovakia and the USSR, and thus the participation of the Czechoslovak companies in research work and the production of the VVER-1000 reactor type was agreed. On the basis of this contract, Škoda bought the Soviet technical documentation in 1977 and 1978 and initiated the “Program for Development and Appropriation of Reactors VVER-1000”. The new reactor type should be manufactured from 1985. By order of the Minister of Metallurgy and Heavy Engineering in 1979, ZES Škoda was to manufacture the first pressure vessel in 1985 and put the first power plant into operation in 1987.

The acquisition of Soviet technology also involved extensive theoretical and experimental research. At the Institute for Nuclear Research in Řež, the research reactor TR-0 (heavy water reactor) was converted into the technical version LR-0 (light water reactor). The system was used for measurements in the active zone with shortened standard fuel rods of the VVER-1000. Škoda used the company's own research reactor ŠR-0 in Vochov near Plzeň. In the State Research Institute for Mechanical Engineering in Běchovice u. A. explored theoretically and experimentally the effects of coolant loss.

Škoda also took part in the actual development work on the VVER-1000 reactor by designing a linear stepper motor for the reactor's control rods. The engine was originally designed for a further development of the A-1 heavy water reactor, where it was intended to replace the relatively difficult and fragile parts of a rotary engine. The main Soviet developer of the reactors, OKB Gidropress, recommended adapting this engine for VVER-1000 reactors, but due to delays at Škoda, a Soviet variant was still produced in the Ischora works. Because it had poorer properties, it was decided in 1980 to jointly develop a modernized engine. This cooperation between Škoda and Gidropress represented the highest participation of Czechoslovakia in the development work to date.

Nuclear power plants of the VVER-440 technology

Bohunice V1 nuclear power plant

The first Czechoslovak nuclear power plant with pressurized water reactors was built under the designation V1 at the Bohunice site in the immediate vicinity of the A-1 nuclear power plant. Construction work began in April 1973. The power plant consisted of two blocks with reactors of the type VVER-440/230. The planning work was carried out by LOTEP Leningrad and Energoprojekt Praha. The Soviet side supplied the nuclear engineering sector and the fuel. Czechoslovak companies supplied the conventional area, including the turbo sets. The main suppliers were Škoda Praha, Hydrostav Bratislava and Škodaexport Praha. Due to incomplete supplier connections, the role of the main contractor for the nuclear area was taken over by Škoda Pilsen. Škoda Pilsen also carried out the assembly of the nuclear technology area under the direction of the Soviet head of assembly. On November 27, 1978, the reactor in the first block became critical for the first time . The block was closed on April 1, 1979.

Dukovany nuclear power plant

Dukovany nuclear power plant

In 1973 a decision was made to build the Dukovany nuclear power plant in South Moravia . The nearby Dalešice pumped storage power plant also spoke in favor of the choice of location . The power plant was originally supposed to consist of two blocks with reactors of the type VVER-440 / V230. After discussions on reactor safety in 1975, the construction project was changed into four blocks with more modern reactors of the type VVER-440 / V213. The construction work did not resume until 1978 after an interruption. The first block was completed in May 1985, the last in July 1987.

The draft planning was carried out by the Soviet planning office LOTEP, the implementation planning by Energoprojekt Praha. The main contractor for the structural part was Průmyslové stavby Brno. The main contractor for the technological part was the power plant construction company (today Škoda Praha) of the Škoda Pilsen concern. The reactors and turbo sets were manufactured by the power engineering company of the same group.

Bohunice V2 nuclear power plant

In 1975, in order to compensate for the delays in the construction of the Dukovany nuclear power plant, the intention was to build another power plant as a copy of the V1 nuclear power plant at the Bohunice site. After the discussions on reactor safety, it was decided in March 1976 to use the modernized reactor type VVER-440 / V213. Construction work on Bohunice V2 began in 1976. The power plant consisted of two blocks, which were completed in 1984 and 1985 and put into operation.

Mochovce nuclear power plant

Mochovce nuclear power plant

In June 1981 construction work began on the Mochovce nuclear power plant . The original construction project expected four pressurized water reactors of the type WWER-440/213. After the Velvet Revolution, the building was reduced and only the first two blocks were completed in 1998 and 1999.

VVER 1000 technology nuclear power plants

Temelín nuclear power plant

The Czechoslovak nuclear energy program counted around 1980 with the commissioning of four to five VVER-1000 reactors by 1990. Several optional locations were examined more closely for the VVER-1000 power plants. In southern Bohemia it was the places Malovice , Dubenec and Temelín , in northern Moravia Lipníky, Majetín , Starojická Lhota and Blahutovice , in western Slovakia the already used site Mochovce .

In 1989, shortly before the Velvet Revolution, the Kecerovce sites in Eastern Slovakia, Blahutovice and a third site in Eastern Bohemia were being planned. In 1989 only the actual locations and their order were specified. At Kecerovce, the investment project had already been approved. The nuclear power plant in East Bohemia was named Tetov in the planning documents and was supposed to be located near Chlumec nad Cidlinou . It should also provide district heating for Prague and the Hradec Králové - Pardubice - Chrudim agglomeration .

Temelín nuclear power plant

In February 1979 a decision was made to build another nuclear power plant. In 1981, an intergovernmental treaty with the Soviet Union was signed. The contract initially provided for a power plant with two reactor blocks, a year later the concept was expanded to four blocks.

Under the agreement, the contract between PZO (operation of Foreign Trade) Škoda Export Praha and the Soviet Trade Organization Sojuzglavzagranatomenergo for the supply of "technical project" in November 1982, the Czechoslovak specialists took until 1985 to a series of consultations with the Soviet designers AtomTeploEnergoProjekt part . The planning work was divided into two zones. The Soviet planning zone included the reactor building and parts of the building for the active auxiliaries and the diesel generator station. All other areas formed the Czechoslovak zone of design work. The Soviet part of the project work was developed by the Atomic Energy Project and the Selenergy Project. The technical project together with the Czechoslovak part of the preliminary project and the Soviet documentation on the construction organization then served the main planner Energoprojekt Praha as a basis. The preliminary project was approved in October 1986 and the building permit was granted in November. Construction began in 1987.

After the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, the construction project was examined with the intention of the future operator to remove technical weaknesses. Much of the information was provided by the operator of the Zaporizhia nuclear power plant . At this point it was known that the control and management system must be viewed as a potential source of unreliability. Also that the area of ​​the active zone in the original project has to be changed in order to add diagnostic systems, replace electrical cables for fire-proofs and install better circuit breakers in the switchgear.

After the Velvet Revolution in 1989, the whole concept was re-evaluated. After several years of construction interruption and extensive changes, the nuclear power plant was finally completed in 2003 with two reactor blocks.

Nuclear heating plants

At the end of the 1970s, the use of nuclear energy as a source of heat for district heating networks was considered in Czechoslovakia and other Eastern Bloc countries . There were two options: either to operate independent heating plants with nuclear reactors or to use nuclear power plants as heating plants . A corresponding development program was initiated within the framework of the Comecon. For the heating plants, capacities of around 500 MW were considered, for Czechoslovakia smaller capacities of around 200 MW were considered, since larger systems in the existing district heating networks and due to the settlement structure could not be used effectively. About 10 locations have been provisionally selected for the nuclear heating plants. At the same time, the project was already being criticized because a further nuclear program would be too costly for a small country, especially in view of the possibility of obtaining heat from nuclear power plants. In the first half of the 1980s, AST 300 heating plants with outputs of 300 MW were planned for the Ostrava - Karviná area with completion around 1995 and for Bratislava with completion around 2000. At the same time, development work was carried out on nuclear heating plants with smaller capacities.

The first project using thermal energy from a nuclear power plant was the district heating pipeline from the Bohunice V2 nuclear power plant to Trnava in 1984. An unimplemented project was to supply the city of Brno with district heating from the Dukovany nuclear power plant, which is about 35 km away. During the construction of the Temelín nuclear power plant, the supply of heat from České Budějovice was expected .

Development after 1989

The Velvet Revolution brought about great political and economic changes, which were also reflected in nuclear energy. At the beginning of the 1990s, the Czechoslovak economy was facing an extensive transformation. In addition, in the early days there was a clear turn away from nuclear energy in politics and society. In 1990 the government decided to discontinue construction work on units 3 and 4 of the Temelín nuclear power plant. Whether blocks 1 and 2 should be completed remained open for the time being. In contrast, the political turnaround brought the availability of more reliable components that were inaccessible to the Czechoslovak economy for various reasons before 1989. The 1990s were also marked by financial and structural problems in the core and mechanical engineering industries of the former Eastern Bloc, which was particularly noticeable in the supplier companies.

In December 1990 the currently most modern Czech teaching and research reactor VR-1 VRABEC was completed for the Prague Czech Technical University . The project was developed by the company Chemoprojekt Praha together with Škoda on the basis of scientific documents from the university. Škoda manufactured the reactor, the structural part was supplied by Pozemní stavby Praha. A second project called VR-1B for the Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava was canceled in December 1989. The project was initiated in 1981 and construction actually began in May 1989. Already before that, from the 1960s onwards the construction of the own teaching reactor ŠR-1 Bratislava was aimed at, this project was also abandoned in 1972. Also in 1989 the company's own research reactor from Škoda ŠR-0 was shut down.

Development after the partition of Czechoslovakia

Nuclear energy in the Czech Republic (2008)
Nuclear energy in Slovakia (2008)

On December 31, 1992, the federal Czechoslovakia was dissolved. At that time, the Temelín and Mochovce nuclear power plants were still unfinished. It was not until May 1993 that the Czech government decided to complete the first two Temelín blocks. At Mochovce, a similar decision was delayed until 1995. Mochovce was also only to be completed with two of the four originally planned blocks. Units 1 and 2 went online in 1999 and 2000. On October 11, 2000, Block 1 of Temelín became critical for the first time. This power plant also finally went into operation in 2002/2003.

In both construction projects, Czech contractors retained key positions in the new era of the free market economy. The main contractor for the Škoda Praha technology sector was separated from the Škoda concern in 1990 and has since formed an independent company. The Škoda Group was privatized in 1993 and the core division was converted into a subsidiary (today Škoda JS ). The main planner of all Czechoslovakian nuclear power plants, Energoprojekt Praha , was bought in 2002 by the Řež nuclear research institute, which has since been privatized.

The 1990s were marked by problems generally related to the transformation of the economy and its adaptation to the capitalist market economy . The most important ones initially included the assumption that the market principles can solve the existing problems themselves, the wrong decisions made by the investor, the exclusion of Russian organizations from the role of author supervision in planning modifications, language problems when dealing with Western companies involved and also a certain idealization of the western company.


Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Ladislav Trlifaj, Ivan Úlehla: Výpočet pomalého reaktoru pracujícího s přirozeným uranem. Rozpravy ČSAV 97, issue 11, 1957
  2. ↑ a b SÚPB: History a předchůdci SÚJB [1]
  3. ↑ Miloslav Vobecký: První československý výzkumný jaderný reactor. Akademický bulletin 2007/09 [2]
  4. ↑ Printed matter: Draft law on the establishment of the State Commission for the Development and Coordination of Science and Technology. People's Assembly of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, 1962. [3]
  5. ↑ Ján Tomčík: Historické aspekty JE A1 - Historic Aspects of A1 NPP. In: Dobroslav Dobák et al .: 50 rokov jadrových elektrární na Slovensku. Jadrová a vyraďovacia spoločnosť and Enel Slovenské elektrárne, 2007. pp. 32–55 ( PDF ( Memento of the original from January 31, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link accordingly Instructions and then remove this notice. ) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.javys.sk
  6. ↑ AtomStroyExport.com: Complete projects: Bohunice NPP Slovakia (Czechoslovakia) - Bohunice NPP ( Memento from January 5, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
  7. ↑ a b Karel Wagner: History účasti společnosti na ŠKODA jaderné energetice history účasti společnosti na ŠKODA jaderné energetice Počátky a history účasti Škodových Závodu na jaderné energetice České a Slovenské republiky ( Memento of 21 August 2009 at the Internet Archive )
  8. ↑ Igor Janovský: Výzkumné reaktory a radiační technology v českých zemích. Národní technické muzeum, Praha 2008. ISBN 978-80-7037-174-9
  9. ↑ SME.sk: Černobyľ mohol byť u nás (interview with Milan Antolík, member of the operating team on duty during the accident) [4]
  10. ↑ a b c d e f Jozef Keher: Historické aspecty JE V1 - Historic Aspects of V1 NPP. In: Dobroslav Dobák et al .: 50 rokov jadrových elektrární na Slovensku. Jadrová a vyraďovacia spoločnosť and Enel Slovenské elektrárne, 2007. pp. 56–75 ( PDF ( Memento of the original from January 31, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link accordingly Instructions and then remove this notice. ) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.javys.sk
  11. ^ Willi Albers (Ed.): Concise dictionary of economics. Zugl. New edition Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. ISBN 3-525-10255-0 , pp. 83-84
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  13. ↑ a b c d A. Maurer - Miroslav Marval: Jaderná energetika jako nosný program rozvoje čs. energetiky. In: Vasil Krett et al. [Ed.]: Výzkumně vývojová problematika jaderných elektráren s reaktory VVER-1000. ŠKODA: Praha, 1980, pp. 15–23
  14. ↑ Ministerstvo průmyslu a obchodu : Mezinárodní smlouvy v oblasti energetiky, hornictví a surovin [6]
  15. ↑ Škoda JS: Výstavba nových bloků VVER Výstavba nových bloků VVER ( Memento from October 24, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  16. ^ Written information from Josef Říha (Škoda JS as)
  17. ↑ a b Kawalec M .: Problematika kontroly jakosti komponent jaderných elektráren v op VÍTKOVICE. In: Vasil Krett et al. [Ed.]: Výzkumne vývojová problematika jaderných elektráren s reaktory VVER-1000. Sborník referátů z konference konané 30.-31. October 1979 ve Františkových Lázní na počest 120. výročí založení op ŠKODA Plzeň a 30. výročí RVHP. Praha: ŠKODA, 1980. pp. 321–328.
  18. ↑ Zdenek Labounek: Zkušenosti z činnosti kp Sigma Lutín při výstavbě a spouštění JE Dukovany v primarni části. In: Shrnutí zkušeností z výstavby uvádění do provozu a stabilizace jaderné elektrárny Dukovany. Vol. 1. Praha: Čs. výbor pro energetiku a jadernou techniku ​​ČSVTS, 1987. pp. 90-100
  19. ^ Stanislav Štěpánek, Josef Novák, Josef Královec, Václav Šaroch: Výzkumné, vývojové a osvojovací práce reaktoru VVER. In: Alexandr Doležal et al .: Vědeckovýzkumné a osvojovací práce pro jaderné elektrárny s lehkovodními reaktory. Vol. 2. Sborník referátů pro konferenci konanou December 1 - 4, 1981 v Karlových Varech ve spolupráci s ČSKAE a pod záštitou ČSAV. Plzeň: ZES kp ŠKODA Plzeň, 1981. pp. 20-29
  20. ↑ a b c Štěpánek, S. - Šaroc, V .: Příprava výroby VVER - 1000. In: Vasil Krett et al. [Ed.]: Výzkumne vývojová problematika jaderných elektráren s reaktory VVER-1000. Sborník referátů z konference konané 30.-31. October 1979 ve Františkových Lázní na počest 120. výročí založení op ŠKODA Plzeň a 30. výročí RVHP. Praha: ŠKODA, 1980. pp. 299–307.
  21. ↑ Národní zpráva ČR pro účely Úmluvy o jaderné bezpečnosti. Příloha 8 - Výzkumná jaderná zařízení. č.j. 9347 / 3.2 / 2004 ( PDF  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. )@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.sujb.cz  
  22. ↑ Dach, K., Kott, J .: Experimentální Genealogie fyziky aktivní zóny reaktoru VVER - 1000. In: Vasil Krett et al. [Ed.]: Výzkumne vývojová problematika jaderných elektráren s reaktory VVER-1000. Praha: Škoda, 1980. pp. 122–127
  23. ^ Karel Černý - František Bouček - Josef Hógel - Pavel Mařík: Experimentální práce pro reaktory VVER. In: Alexandr Doležal et al .: Vědeckovýzkumné a osvojovací práce pro jaderné elektrárny s lehkovodními reaktory. 3. díl. Sborník referátů pro konferenci konanou December 1 - 4, 1981 v Karlových Varech ve spolupráci s ČSKAE a pod záštitou ČSAV. Plzeň: ZES kp ŠKODA Plzeň, 1981. pp. 25-29
  24. ↑ Havelka Z., Kodym O., Suchánek M .: Výzkum tlakových poměrů v reaktorech type VVER při havárii se ztrátou chladiva. In: Vasil Krett et al. [Ed.]: Výzkumne vývojová problematika jaderných elektráren s reaktory VVER-1000. Praha: Škoda, 1980. pp. 179–188
  25. ^ Karel Wagner, František Med: Lineární krokový motor. In: Shrnutí zkušeností z výstavby uvádění do provozu a stabilizace jaderné elektrárny Dukovany. Vol. 4. Praha: Čs. výbor pro energetiku a jadernou techniku ​​ČSVTS, 1987. pp. 191–198
  26. ↑ a b Juraj Kmošena: Historické aspekty JE V2 - Historic Aspects of V2 NPP. In: Dobroslav Dobák et al .: 50 rokov jadrových elektrární na Slovensku. Jadrová a vyraďovacia spoločnosť and Enel Slovenské elektrárne, 2007. pp. 76–83 ( PDF ( Memento of the original dated January 31, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link accordingly Instructions and then remove this notice. ) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.javys.sk
  27. ↑ a b c d ČEZ.cz: History a současnost EDU [7]
  28. ↑ Pavel Zemánek, Jiří Mastný: Organizace činnosti GDS při výstavbě elektrárny. In: Shrnutí zkušeností z výstavby uvádění do provozu a stabilizace Jaderné elektrárny Dukovany. I. Vol. ČSV pro energetiku a jadernou techniku ​​ČSVTS, 1987. pp. 21–32
  29. ↑ Bílek, V .: Dispoziční řešení jaderných elektráren s VVER - 1000. In: Vasil Krett et al. [Ed.]: Výzkumně vývojová problematika jaderných elektráren s reaktory VVER-1000. ŠKODA: Praha, 1980 pp. 32–49
  30. ^ Minutes of the 14th joint meeting of both chambers of the Federal Assembly of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic on July 20 and 21, 1989 [8]
  31. ^ A b Václav Matyáš, Ivan Lefner, Dušan Müller, Josef Andráš: Zhodnocení výstavby jaderné elektrárny Temelín z pohledu Gds. In: Václav Hanus [Ed.]: Zhodnocení výstavby a spouštění jaderné elektrárny Temelín. Česká nukleární společnost, Praha 2003. pp. 53–59
  32. ↑ a b Jaroslav Chytrý: Projektová příprava JE Temelín. In: Příprava, realizace výstavby a provozu JE Temelín v ČSSR. Dům techniky ČSVTS, České Budějovice 1989. ISBN 80-02-99062-5 . Pp. 57-60
  33. ↑ a b c František Hezoučký: History výstavby ETE v širších souvislostech. In: Václav Hanus [Ed.]: Zhodnocení výstavby a spouštění jaderné elektrárny Temelín. Česká nukleární společnost, Praha 2003. pp. 3–21
  34. ^ Contribution to the discussion by J. Královec, In: Vasil Krett et al. [Ed.]: Výzkumně vývojová problematika jaderných elektráren s reaktory VVER-1000. ŠKODA: Praha, 1980, p. 368
  35. ↑ A. Panasenkov, VG Sychev, K. Mensel: A promising area for collaboration: Nuclear heat supply systems in CMEA countries. IAEA Bulletin, Volume 26, Issue 4, Vienna 1984. pp. 22–28 ( PDF )
  36. ↑ Josef Vlach: Úspora paliv pro teplárenství teplem z jaderných elektráren Archived copy ( memento of the original from September 16, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.energetik.cz
  37. ↑ a b c František Horký: Zhodnocení výstavby JE Temelín z pohledu Gdt. In: Václav Hanus [Ed.]: Zhodnocení výstavby a spouštění jaderné elektrárny Temelín. Česká nukleární společnost, Praha 2003. pp. 46–52
  38. ↑ Archived copy ( Memento of the original dated December 4, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.fjfi.cvut.cz
  39. ↑ Štefan Šáro: Polstoročie jadrovej fyziky a jadrovej techniky na Slovensku ( PDF  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. )@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.snus.sk  
  40. ↑ Igor Chochlovský, Miroslav Ďurčík: History začátků projektování jaderné techniky u (NAS Chemoprojekt 1955-1988) [9]
  41. ↑ Škoda JS: Research reactors Archived copy ( memento of the original from August 9, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.skoda-js.cz
  42. ↑ Škoda Praha: Company history [10]
  43. ↑ Škoda JS: Major Events in the Company's History Archived copy ( memento of the original dated May 7, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.skoda-js.cz
  44. ↑ UJV Řež: History Archived Copy ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.nri.cz