1932 Winter Olympics / speed skating

Speed ​​skating in the III. Winter Olympics
information
venue	Lake Placid
Competition venue	Olympic Stadium
Nations	6th
Athletes	31 (31 men)
date	4-8 February 1932
decisions	4th
← St. Moritz 1928 Garmisch 1936 →

With the III. During the 1932 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid , four speed skating competitions were held. The venue was the Olympic Stadium with a natural ice rink.

In Olympic history, the 1932 speed skating competitions were the only ones that were completely mass start. In the mode, which was considered an American peculiarity, the leading Europeans saw themselves at a disadvantage and in some cases did not even travel. In fact, American athletes won all four competitions; Americans and Canadians won ten of twelve Olympic medals in total. The most successful participants were Jack Shea and Irving Jaffee , who each won two races.

In addition to the men's competitions, women's speed skating was also on the program for the first time as a demonstration competition in which no Olympic medals were awarded. The starting field was still very small, only ten athletes from two countries took part. As an official Olympic competition, women's speed skating was not included in the program until the 1960 Winter Olympics .

overview

Medal table

space	country				total
1	United States	4th	1	-	5
2	Norway	-	2	-	2
3	Canada	-	1	4th	5

Medalist

competitor	gold	silver	bronze
500 m	Jack Shea	Bernt Evensen	Alexander Hurd
1500 m	Jack Shea	Alexander Hurd	William Logan
5000 m	Irving Jaffee	Edward Murphy	William Logan
10,000 m	Irving Jaffee	Ivar Ballangrud	Frank Stack

preparation

classification

Clas Thunberg at the 1924 Winter Olympics

Speed ​​skating has been part of the Olympic program since the first Winter Games in 1924 , which included only the men's competitions over four different distances (500 meters, 1500 meters, 5000 meters and 10,000 meters). The Finn Clas Thunberg , who had collected a total of five Olympic gold medals, had performed most successfully in the two previous events . Thunberg was also reigning all-around world champion: in 1931 he won the title in his hometown Helsinki with two victories over 500 meters and 1500 meters. The silver and bronze medals went to the Norwegians Bernt Evensen and Ivar Ballangrud , both of whom had already become Olympic champions in 1928 . At the time of the 1932 Olympic Games, Thunberg was 38 years old, Ballangrud and Berntsen more than ten years younger.

In May 1931, the World Association of skaters who decided International Skating Union ( International Skating Union ; ISU) that the competitions at the Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid according to the rules of the American Association - the Amateur Skating Union of the United States were to discharge - . This meant that the decision was not made in pairs, as is common in Europe (and as is usually the case in ISU competitions) , but in a mass start ( pack-style ): First, the starting field was divided into heats, the fastest runners of each heat qualified for the final. There, too, the rule was that the first athlete had won the finish line. Instead of running for a limited time in fixed lanes, there was a competition with a tactical element that differed significantly from conventional European speed skating. Among other things, it happened in mass starts that athletes pushed, pushed with their elbows or otherwise disabled. The organizers rarely prevented such behavior, despite the relevant rules. The motion for the introduction of the mass start had been made by Godfrey Dewey , the President of the Organizing Committee of the Games. The reason given by the organizers was that the direct battle between the athletes would make the races much more attractive than the conventional mode.

Another decision of the ISU Congress in May 1931 was the first recognition of women's world records , all of which were held by Zofja Nehringowa from Poland . Even if there had been no world or European championships for women by then, the organizers of Lake Placid decided to include women's races as demonstration competitions in the Olympic program for 1932. Unlike the men, there were only competitions over three distances for women (500 meters, 1000 meters and 1500 meters) and no Olympic medals were awarded.

organization

Within the United States , Lake Placid, located in upstate New York , has been an ice skating center. In 1918 the Eastern Skating Championships took place on the frozen nearby Mirror Lake , in the 1920s competitions with the participation of the Olympic champions Clas Thunberg and Charles Jewtraw . The Lake Placid Skating Association was founded as the first winter sports club in the area and was transferred to the broader Lake Placid Athletic Club in 1926/27 . In the official report of the Olympic Games, the organizers emphasized that speed skating was established in Lake Placid as "one of the most popular winter sports" and emphasized the experience of the place in relation to the sport.

After the Olympic Games in Lake Placid, a stadium was built in 1930/31 , the track of which was flooded and iced over in winter, so that a 400-meter natural ice rink was created. The grandstands of the stadium, which was also used for the opening and closing ceremonies of the games, held almost 7,500 spectators. In the winter of 1931, the North American speed skating championships were held in the (not yet completed) stadium, as were preliminary races for the US Olympic team. In addition to the stadium and the ice rink on Mirror Lake, the speed skaters could also use the Olympic Arena for their training. The covered arena was intended for the final of the ice hockey tournament as well as for figure skating .

The Swedish journalist Sven Lindhagen, who wrote for Idrottsbladet and was also deputy head of the Swedish ski team in Lake Placid, sharply criticized the organization of the competitions as "improvised": Among other things, there were too few officials and timekeepers; In addition, the race results were poorly communicated. The competition was headed by Joseph Savage, President of the Amateur Skating Union of the United States . The official report listed thirteen men as arbitrators, ten of whom were from the United States, two from Canada and one from Norway.

Competitions

Attendees

The Norwegian team: Bernt Evensen , Håkon Pedersen , Erling Lindboe , Michael Staksrud , Ivar Ballangrud , Hans Engnestangen (from left to right)

During his participation in several competitions in North America in 1925, Clas Thunberg had the experience that in mass start races it was not the fastest, but the most tactically skilled runners who took the top positions and that it was advantageous to work as a team. In his autobiography, published in 1964, the Finn stated that he had therefore contacted the head of the Norwegian Skating Association, Gerhard Karlsen : Finns and Norwegians should form a “European group” (in the original: “en europeisk grupp”) against the feared “ Tricks ”(in the original:“ knep ”) of the Americans defend themselves in the same way and thus ensure Bernt Evensen's victories on the 500-meter and 1500-meter courses. In return, Thunberg himself asked for Norwegian help for the two long distances, where he wanted to collect more gold medals. However, the Norwegians were not interested in an alliance. The conviction that a victory would not be possible without cooperation - paired with existing money problems as a result of the global economic crisis - prompted Thunberg to refuse to participate in the Olympics. The representatives of other European countries also decided not to travel to Lake Placid: four years earlier, 40 athletes from 14 nations had started the speed skating competitions in St. Moritz, in 1932 only 32 athletes from 6 nations were on the line-up for the events . The Swede Carl Lindberg and the Finn Ossi Blomqvist were the only speed skaters in the Olympic teams in their countries.

Each nation could nominate eight athletes per competition, but only four of them were actually allowed to start in the heats. The Norwegians were the only Europeans who made use of this opportunity and took part in the Olympic speed skating competitions with six athletes in team strength. Ivar Ballangrud later declared that he was in favor of participating despite the rejection of the format, saying that the World Championships in Lake Placid were scheduled after the Olympic competitions - but then in the European pair skating style. The US-Americans (13 speed skaters) and the Canadians (7) made the largest bids. The US team included all four athletes who competed in 1928. This also included Irving Jaffee , who had led the 10,000 meter run in St. Moritz when it had to be stopped early due to the thaw. Jack Shea from Lake Placid, who had taken the Olympic oath at the opening ceremony, was a new addition . In addition, four Japanese speed skaters, who started at the Olympics for the first time, were eliminated in the preliminary runs on all four routes and thus did not achieve a top 6 result.

In the women's competitions, the field of participants was much more manageable than in the men's: ten athletes took part in the three demonstration competitions, five each from Canada and five from the United States. The reigning American champion was Helen Bina , who had only been successful in the jump-off against Kit Klein (and through a fall of Klein).

Time schedule

The decision over 500 meters was the first of the 1932 Winter Olympics and began shortly after the half-hour opening ceremony on the morning of February 4th. First the prelims were played, after a short break (which was filled by the first third of the ice hockey game between the USA and Canada) the final took place. In the afternoon of the same day, the 5000 meter race followed in the same way, and on the morning of February 5, the 1500 meter competition. According to the organizers' plans, the men's speed skating competitions should end on the afternoon of February 5th with the preliminaries and on the morning of February 6th with the 10,000 meter final. There were protests and delays after the long distance heats, which meant they were repeated and the final could only take place on the afternoon of February 8th. On this day the women's competitions began, one a day until February 10th. The award ceremonies took place after the competitions.

Race history and results

500 m

space	country	athlete	Time (s)
1	United States	Jack Shea	43.4
2	NOR	Bernt Evensen	-
3	CAN	Alexander Hurd	-
4th	CAN	Frank Stack	-
5	CAN	William Logan	-
6th	United States	John Farrell	-

Date: February 4, 1932

16 starters from 4 countries took part in the 500 meter race. Five North Americans and the Norwegian Evensen qualified for the final in three heats. Evensen's compatriot Håkon Pedersen was eliminated in the third heat after being hindered by John Farrell , but his team did not protest the result. In the final, Jack Shea quickly took the lead and held it until the finish line, which he reached after 43.4 seconds with a lead of five meters over Evensen. His time was a setting of the Olympic record set four years earlier.

The award ceremony immediately after the race - in the presence of New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt - was held by the President of the International Olympic Committee Henri de Baillet-Latour . For the first time in Olympic history, the three victorious athletes stood on a podium. Baillet-Latour mistook the second-placed Evensen and the third-placed Alexander Hurd , as they were not in the intended place (Hurd left, Evensen right), but had swapped their positions.

1500 m

space	country	athlete	Time (min)
1	United States	Jack Shea	2: 57.5
2	CAN	Alexander Hurd	-
3	CAN	William Logan	-
4th	CAN	Frank Stack	-
5	United States	Raymond Murray	-
6th	United States	Herbert Taylor	-

Date: February 5, 1932

18 participants from 6 countries started the three 1500 meter heats; the best two each qualified for the final. The third run was significantly faster than the first two (2: 29.3 compared to 2: 49.3 and 2: 58.0 minutes), as the Swede Ingvar Lindberg picked up the pace early. He broke away from the field over more than two laps with a sometimes clear lead of over 30 meters, but then fell back on the last 300 meters and was overtaken by the entire field. All six finalists were from Canada or the United States.

In the final, Alexander Hurd, Jack Shea and Raymond Murray took turns in the lead until Shea won the race with his final sprint and thus won his second gold medal. A rule established by the ISU stipulated that the time of the final winner could not be slower than the mean time of the preliminary winners. This benchmark was exceeded by almost twelve seconds, whereupon the Norwegian team management drew referee Savage's attention without a formal protest. As a result, Savage stipulated that this rule only applied to normal championships, but not to the Olympic Games.

5000 m

space	country	athlete	Time (min)
1	United States	Irving Jaffee	9: 40.8
2	United States	Edward Murphy	-
3	CAN	William F. Logan	-
4th	United States	Herbert Taylor	-
5	NOR	Ivar Ballangrud	-
6th	NOR	Bernt Evensen	-
7th	CAN	Frank Stack	-
8th	CAN	Harry Smyth	-

Date: February 4, 1932

The field of participants in the 5000 meter competition consisted of 18 starters from 6 countries, who made up eight finalists in two preliminary runs - three Canadians and three Americans and two Norwegians. The times in the preliminaries as well as in the final were about one and a half minutes above the world record set by Ivar Ballangrud in 1930 (8: 21.6 minutes). This slowness was due to the fact that no athlete wanted to take on the leadership work, which is why the Swede Lindberg said after the competition that all races could just as easily be carried out over a distance of only three laps (i.e. 1200 meters), since there was no serious competition beforehand would.

In the final, the Canadian Harry Smyth faced the Norwegians Ballangrud and Evensen, who were in a promising position; all three athletes fell behind and lost their medal chances. The Canadian side protested after the race: Smyth had been harassed by Edward Murphy in second place, which only led to the crush. Chief Referee Joseph Savage declined the protest. The gold medal went to Irving Jaffee, who clearly distanced Murphy on the home stretch.

10,000 m

Following the 1,500 meter race, initiated by IOC member Clarence von Rosen from Sweden, the four non-North American delegations met and wrote a letter to the organizing committee in which, in their opinion, the inconsistent interpretation of the US rules Referees denounced. The letter concluded with a fundamental criticism of the mode of the mass start:

“It seems evident, from what we have observed during the recent contests in the 5,000-meter and 1,500-meter races, that the American rules will permit tactics which practically eliminate the distance set for the longer events, inasmuch as they allow the competitors to run the major part of the race at a snail's pace, with a final spurt in the last round, and it is our opinion that this system is not only detrimental to the ideals and aims of fair sport but that the race run under these rules can actually become a parody on what a fine and fair speed race should be. "

“It seems clear to us from our observations of recent 5000 and 1500 meter competitions that American rules allow tactics that practically obliterate the importance of long distance races as they allow participants to run most of the race at a snail's pace, with one Final sprint on the last lap, and it is our opinion that this mode is not only detrimental to the ideals and goals of fair sport, but that a race under these conditions is ultimately a caricature of what a good and fair high-speed race is should look like. "

- Thomas Fearnley, Carsten Matheson, Yngvar Bryn (all Norway), Clarence von Rosen (Sweden), Walter Jacobsson (Finland), Professor Sato (Japan) : New York Times

In response to the letter, the organizers introduced a new rule before the final 10,000 meter race that every participant had to perform leadership work during a run and that lap times could not be slower than 45 seconds.

space	country	athlete	Time (min)
1	United States	Irving Jaffee	19: 13.6
2	NOR	Ivar Ballangrud	-
3	CAN	Frank Stack	-
4th	United States	Edwin Wedge	-
5	United States	Valentine Bialas	-
6th	NOR	Bernt Evensen	-
7th	CAN	Alexander Hurd	-
8th	United States	Edward Schroeder	-

Date: 5-8. February 1932

Again 18 starters from 6 countries were registered for the 10,000 meter competition. There were two preliminary heats with nine participants each, of which the fastest four should move into the final. In both heats there were disqualifications - partly due to the new rules: In the first run, among others, the winner Alexander Hurd from Canada and the third-placed American Edwin Wedge were excluded because the race had been too slow under their leadership. In the second run, the second-placed Canadian Frank Stack was disqualified, who had thrown Bernt Evensen, who had been leading up to that point, off balance. Due to the exclusion of the North Americans, all four Norwegians and the Finn Blomqvist were in the preliminary field of participants in the final. However, the Canadian delegation protested against the disqualification of Hurd and Stack, and in the meantime threatened to withdraw completely from the Winter Olympics in Lake Placid. The Canadian representatives of all sports would have been affected. After a meeting of the representatives of all countries on the evening of February 5th, referee Joseph Savage passed the decision on to the technical delegates of the ISU: Herbert Clarke , Walter Jakobsson and Hermann Kleeberg - all three former figure skaters - decided to repeat the heats on the following day.

The athletes were only informed on the morning of February 6th that they had to start again in the heats. The Americans and Norwegians, who thought they were qualified for the final, initially refused to start a second time. Only the mayor of Lake Placid convinced the US runners to continue participating; the Norwegians (who later said they saw the Americans also slipped dollar bills) joined them. In the repetition of the preliminary runs, the results were almost the same as in the first implementation. Because there were no disqualifications this time, six North Americans qualified for the final and only two Europeans, the Norwegians Ballangrud and Evensen.

The 10,000-meter final took place on the afternoon of February 8th, after a further postponement had initially threatened due to prolonged snowfall. In the 24th and penultimate lap Ivar Ballangrud increased the speed, but was overtaken shortly before the end by Irving Jaffee, who crossed the finish line with a one meter advantage over the Norwegian. The American threw himself over the finish line and, like fourth-placed and exhausted Edwin Wedge, slid several meters on his stomach on the track. Ballangrud later stated in his autobiography that he damaged his skates just before the start, so that he had to contest the race with crooked blades. For this reason, he described the competition as the strangest one he had contested in his life (in the original: “For the 10,000 meters he has the rarest jed har gått i mitt liv, fordi jed gikk den med skjev skøyte”).

Women's demonstration competitions

500 meters

space	country	sportswoman	Time (s)
1	CAN	Jean Wilson	58.0
2	United States	Elizabeth Dubois	-
3	United States	Kit small	-
4th	CAN	Lela Brooks-Potter	-
5	United States	Elsie Muller-McLave	-
6th	United States	Helen Bina	-

Date: February 8, 1932

The Canadian Jean Wilson beat the American Elizabeth Dubois narrowly and only on the finish line. That race was the only defeat for the US speed skating team at the Lake Placid Winter Games.

1000 m

space	country	sportswoman	Time (min)
1	United States	Elizabeth Dubois	2: 04.0
2	CAN	Hattie Donaldson	-
3	United States	Dorothy Franey	-
4th	CAN	Lela Brooks-Potter	-
5	CAN	Geraldine Mackie	-
6th	CAN	Jean Wilson	-

Date: February 9, 1932

Lela Brooks-Potter won the first heat in 2: 01.2 minutes and thus undercut the Polish Nehringova's world record by two seconds. Brooks-Potter's time was not taken into account in the official ISU world record lists. Elizabeth Dubois won the final after the previous day's winner Jean Wilson fell shortly before the finish.

1500 m

space	country	sportswoman	Time (min)
1	United States	Kit small	3: 00.6
2	CAN	Jean Wilson	-
3	United States	Helen Bina	-
4th	CAN	Geraldine Mackie	-
5	United States	Dorothy Franey	-
6th	CAN	Lela Brooks-Potter	-

Date: February 10, 1932

Kit Klein's final time was just three seconds longer than Jack Shea, who won the men's race over the same distance. In the heats, Lela Brooks-Potter ran the fastest time again and set a new women's world record with 2: 54.0 minutes, which, like her time over 1000 meters, was not recognized as such. In the finale, Brooks-Potter fell just before the goal.

Assessments and impact

Jack Shea , two-time Olympic champion from 1932 (here 1929)

The contemporary judgment of the Olympic competitions varied greatly. From the US point of view, the competitions were primarily a great success for their own athletes: William Taylor, the coach and manager of the US speed skating team, emphasized the “wonderful performance” of his team. He showed that the speed skaters he supervised had contributed significantly to winning a point evaluation similar to the medal table. Jack Shea and Irving Jaffee each won two of the six US gold medals in Lake Placid. Accordingly, the sport also determined reporting in the US media. Of the 18 minutes of film received - in the absence of official film material, these are silent film recordings and newsreels - a large part covers the speed skating competitions (including the women's races). Arthur Daley wrote for the New York Times that Shea and Jaffee's successes were evidence of America's amazing progress in winter sports. The American press agency Associated Press also quoted the chairman of the Norwegian Olympic Committee Cato Aall after the 10,000-meter race as saying that the American style was superior to the European one. Overall, however, the Europeans were extremely critical after the competitions in Lake Placid and viewed them as a farce.

Two weeks after the Olympic speed skating competitions, the all-around world championship took place in Lake Placid , and was held in a conventional paired style. All eight European and four Japanese Olympic participants started at the World Cup, but the two US Olympic champions Shea and Jaffee decided not to take part. Ivar Ballangrud won three of four individual routes at the World Cup and thus also the all-around title ahead of his teammates Michael Staksrud and Bernt Evensen. He set track records over the 5000 meters as well as the 1500 meters and the 10,000 meters, over the two longest distances he was more than a minute below the respective Olympic times of Jaffee. As the best North American, Herbert Taylor reached fourth place overall, he ran the second-best time over 10,000 meters.

Sports historians classify the 1932 races between “strange” and “unolympic”. Erich Kamper attributed the latter to the competitions: the Americans had used their home advantage in a “brutal way” and “tricked” the actually superior Europeans. Ture Widlund draws the conclusion of his examination of the competitions that various points contributed to making the speed skating competitions of 1932 the most controversial in Olympic history: First and foremost, it was "natural" to apply the mass start rules, but also adds below Among other things by a "weak, partial and pressure-prone" arbitrator and the lack of an arbitration tribunal formed by representatives of different nations.

All other international competitions in classic speed skating up to the beginning of the 21st century were held in pairs. Since the winter of 2011/12 , the mass start - in addition to the individual courses run in pairs - has been a permanent part of the World Cup, and since 2018 it has also been part of the Olympic program. The short track , which is related to speed skating and has been recognized as an independent Olympic discipline since 1992 , exclusively uses the principle of mass starts.

The women's demonstration competitions remained the only Olympic competitions for speed skaters for almost 30 years: it was not until 1960 that both genders competed again in the discipline at the Olympics, from then on the women's competitions were considered part of the official program of the Winter Olympic Games.

literature

• Ture Widlund : Olympic Speed ​​Skating Lake Placid 1932. In: International Society of Olympic Historians (ed.): Journal of Olympic History. Issue 11/1, January 2003. Pages 44–54. Available as PDF .

Web links

• Speed ​​skating at the 1932 Winter Olympics in the Sports-Reference database (English; archived from the original )
• Official report of the 1932 Winter Olympics (PDF; 8.1 MB)

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b} Program for the III. 1932 Winter Olympics-Lake Placid (p. 28). In: General provisions and program: III. 1932 Lake Placid Winter Olympics, February 4-13. Retrieved April 18, 2020.
2. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h} Ture Widlund : Olympic Speed ​​Skating Lake Placid 1932. In: International Society of Olympic Historians (ed.): Journal of Olympic History. Issue 11/1, January 2003. Pages 44–54.
3. ^ Organization Following the Award of the Games to Lake Placid (p. 68). In: Official Record of the Winter Games of the III Olympiad Lake Placid, 1932 . Retrieved April 12, 2020.
4. ↑ ^{a b} Volker Kluge : Olympic Winter Games - The Chronicle. Sportverlag, Berlin 1999. Page 109.
5. ^ History of Winter Sports at Lake Placid (p. 38). In: Official Record of the Winter Games of the III Olympiad Lake Placid, 1932 . Retrieved April 12, 2020. "Today speed-skating is firmly establisht as one of the favorite winter sports in Lake Placid."
6. ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Winter Games - The Chronicle. Sportverlag, Berlin 1999. Page 97.
7. ^ Organization Following the Award of the Games to Lake Placid (p. 72). In: Official Record of the Winter Games of the III Olympiad Lake Placid, 1932 . Retrieved April 12, 2020.
8. ^ Ture Widlund: Olympic Speed ​​Skating Lake Placid 1932. In: International Society of Olympic Historians (ed.): Journal of Olympic History. Issue 11/1, January 2003. Page 45f.
9. ^ Clas Thunberg: Isen var mitt liv. Söderström & Co., Borgå 1964. page 144. In another book Thunberg states that he approached Ballangrud and Staksrud directly, with the same result: They presented themselves confidently and thought they did not need his help. (Clas Thunberg: Alene mot hele Norge. Ekko Forlag, Oslo 1947. page 105.)
10. ^ Clas Thunberg: Isen var mitt liv. Söderström & Co., Borgå 1964. pp. 145f.
11. ↑ Speed ​​skating (p. 208). In: Official Record of the Winter Games of the III Olympiad Lake Placid, 1932 . Retrieved April 12, 2020.
12. ^ Ivar Ballangrud: Veien opp til gullstolen. Aschehoug, Oslo 1949. page 63.
13. ↑ Milford Deitz was the only one of the 13-strong team who did not take part in any competition. Sports-reference therefore gives roughly the size of the US team with twelve athletes.
14. ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Winter Games - The Chronicle. Sportverlag, Berlin 1999. Page 106.
15. ↑ Timothy Evans: Kit Klein - World Champion Speed ​​Skater. In: Journal of Olympic History. Issue 12/1, January 2004. Pages 13–15.
16. ↑ Arthur J. Daley: Olympic Titles Won By Shea And Jaffee . In: New York Times , Feb. 5, 1932, p. 26
17. ^ Ture Widlund: Olympic Speed ​​Skating Lake Placid 1932. In: International Society of Olympic Historians (ed.): Journal of Olympic History. Issue 11/1, January 2003. Page 47.
18. ^ Robert K. Barney: The Great Transformation: Olympic Victory Ceremonies and the Medal Podium. In: Olympika: The International Journal of Olympic Studies. Volume VII, 1998. Pages 89–112.
19. ↑ ^{a b c} Arthur J. Daley: 1,500-Meter Title Captured By Shea . In: New York Times , Feb. 6, 1932, p. 20.
20. ↑ The Japanese Shozo Ishihara was also disqualified because he had not done enough laps. His problem, however, was that he was too far behind in the race to be able to take the lead regularly, cf. Ture Widlund: Olympic Speed ​​Skating Lake Placid 1932. In: International Society of Olympic Historians (ed.): Journal of Olympic History. Issue 11/1, January 2003. Page 49.
21. ^ Ture Widlund: Olympic Speed ​​Skating Lake Placid 1932. In: International Society of Olympic Historians (ed.): Journal of Olympic History. Issue 11/1, January 2003. Page 51. The New York Times said that double Olympic champion Shea (who did not start in the 10,000 meter race himself) had convinced his teammates to start anyway. The Norwegians were finally brought "on line" by an ultimatum from referee Savage. He threatened to disqualify all athletes who were not at the start in five minutes, cf. Arthur J. Daley: Olympic Finalists Same After Re-Run . In: New York Times , February 7, 1932, pages S1 and S10 (116 and 125).
22. ^ ^{A b} Arthur J. Daley: Jaffee Wins Title In Olympic Skating . In: New York Times , Feb. 9, 1932, p. 32.
23. ^ Ivar Ballangrud: Veien opp til gullstolen. Aschehoug, Oslo 1949. Page 64.
24. ^ ^{A b} Arthur J. Daley: Schafer Captures Title In Olympics . In: New York Times , Feb.10, 1932, p. 29.
25. ↑ Arthur J. Daley: US Pair Captures Olympic Bob Title . In: New York Times . February 11, 1932. page 25.
26. ^ Report of Manager-Coach of the American Olympic Speed ​​Skating Team William M. Taylor (p. 263). In: USOC Quadrennial Report 1932 . Retrieved April 12, 2020. The “unofficial point score used by the Press” presented by Taylor is a method of counting that is also mentioned in the Official Report of the Olympic Games finds, cf. Point Scoring (p. 265). In: Official Record of the Winter Games of the III Olympiad Lake Placid, 1932 . Retrieved April 12, 2020.
27. ↑ David Wallechinsky: Olympic film: From the Beginning to Riefenstahl's Berlin docudrama. In: Journal of Olympic History. Issue 27/1, 2019. Page 33. “[…] most of the coverage is of American speed skaters winning races.”
28. ^ AP: Norwegian Olympic Head Hails The American Style of Skating . In: New York Times . 9 Feb 1932, page 32.
29. ↑ Speed ​​skating at the 1932 Winter Olympics in the Sports-Reference database (English; archived from the original )
30. ↑ AP: Jaffee Out of World's Title Speed ​​Skating . In: New York Times , February 15, 1932, p. 15. For Shea, the AP author suspects that he had to return to college and could not afford to take another break from his studies; no reason is given for Jaffee.
31. ↑ Results of the all- around world championships on speedskatingnews.info. Retrieved April 12, 2020.
32. ↑ David Wallechinsky : The Complete Book of the Winter Olympics. Aurum Press, London 1998. page 119. “American officials, having already irritated the foreign teams with their strange mass starts […]”
33. ↑ Erich Kamper / Herbert Soucek: Olympic Heroes. Portraits and anecdotes from 1896 to today. Spiridon, Erkrath 1991. page 144.