Philip of Opus

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The beginning of Epinomis, probably written by Philip, in the oldest surviving manuscript: Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Gr. 1807 (9th century)

Philip of Opus ( ancient Greek Φίλιππος ὁ Όπούντιος ) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the 4th century BC. In addition to philosophical writings, he also wrote treatises on astronomical, meteorological and mathematical subjects, all of which are lost except for fragments. As a student and confidante of Plato , he was a prominent member of the Platonic Academy in Athens . He is very likely the author of the dialogue Epinomis, which is wrongly attributed to Plato .

Life

Very little is known of Philip's life. The sources refer to him partly as an Opuntier (citizen of Opus , the capital of the eastern Lokris in Central Greece), partly as a citizen of Medma , a Greek colony in Calabria in the area of ​​today's municipality of Rosarno . Apparently one of the two cities (probably Medma) was his home and the other his future residence. He was younger than Eudoxus of Knidos, who was born after 400 . In the last years of Plato's life, Philip was his secretary. He was present at Plato's death; later he related the details to the historian Neanthes of Kyzikos , whose report has survived in fragments.

After Plato's death, Philip “rewrote” the Dialogue Nomoi , an old work by the late philosopher, which was recorded “on wax (tablets)”, ie only available as a manuscript. This can mean that he transferred the text from wax to papyrus , or that he edited and corrected the manuscript. In any case, he was preparing the nomoi for publication. The news that the nomoi were divided into twelve books is unbelievable .

Works

Epinomis

In the ancient world the assumption prevails that Philip is very likely the author of the dialogue Epinomis . The doxographer Diogenes Laertios already mentions this attribution with reference to sources that are not named. Against the view, defended by some scholars, that it is a work of Plato, there are mainly content-related reasons as well as stylistic ones. Some of the teachings presented in Epinomis contradict fundamental beliefs of Plato.

The Epinomis is a protreptic work that promotes a philosophical attitude aimed at the highest knowledge and is intended to show the way to wisdom. It presents itself as a continuation of Plato's dialogue Nomoi . Therefore, the people appearing are the three already involved: the Cretan Kleinias, the Spartan Megillos and an Athenian whose name is not mentioned. As in the Nomoi , the Athenian is the main character; he has by far the largest share in the conversation, which in parts takes on a monologue-like character. Megillos is mentioned as present but does not intervene in the debate.

content

The starting point of the dialogue is the question of the knowledge that gives people wisdom and thus an optimal state of mind, eudaimonia . In doing so, the author takes up a theme of the nomoi : the determination of the educational content that is to be conveyed to the members of the "Nightly Assembly", the highest body of the planned best possible state. At the beginning the Athenian states that true happiness can usually only be achieved after death. It is well known that this goal is hardly achievable during his lifetime. After a long, necessarily arduous life, no reasonable person could wish to start all over again. Under no circumstances can humanity ever become happy as a whole.

A number of practice-related sciences or arts are examined with regard to their suitability for the acquisition of wisdom and rejected as unsuitable. Arts that serve to improve living conditions or for entertainment, such as agriculture, culinary arts , nautical science and hunting, the various crafts, the arts of war, medicine and rhetoric, and the visual arts prove to be unsuitable for making people wise. Even good natural dispositions such as ingenuity and presence of mind do not give him wisdom. Mathematics, on the other hand, is helpful, as it is the basic science that forms the basis for philosophical knowledge. It is not only the basis of the knowledge that can be achieved in the individual application-related sciences, but also forms the foundation for logical thinking par excellence and for understanding the order of the cosmos, which is structured according to numerical relationships. It thus also offers the key to attaining virtue and eudaimonia. The impetus for occupation with mathematics was given to mankind by the changing celestial phenomena, which led to the division of time into days, months and years.

The conversation turns to cosmology and the graded order of living beings. The supreme principle of the cosmos is the world soul as the cause of everything. Everything physical consists of the five elements fire, ether, air, water and earth. The ether, which Plato understood as the upper layer of air, had become an independent element between fire and air in the course of the development of Platonism . The five elementary areas of the cosmos, in each of which one of the elements dominates, correspond to five species of living beings. The earthly living beings from plants to humans have bodies that are predominantly made of earth. They represent the lowest member of the hierarchy. The opposite pole to them are the star gods, who animate the stars; their bodies are mostly made of fire. The evidence of the existence of these gods is provided by the order perceptible in heaven; the regularity of the celestial movements can only be interpreted as the result of reasonable consideration and planning, and only divine souls can be trusted to be able to keep such huge masses in orderly movement. In addition, the stars enable life on earth, from which divine care for earthly living beings can be derived.

The living beings of the three middle elementary areas (ether, air and water) are below the star gods, but are also superhuman. The etheric and the air beings are invisible, but can make themselves noticeable to humans. The aquatic beings classified as demigods are sometimes even visible. Ethereal and air beings mediate between the star gods and earthly beings. They inform the star gods about the human world, because the fiery gods only perceive physical, not spiritual conditions. The mediating living beings have access to the inner life of human souls and, in contrast to the fire beings, are subject to emotional movements and thus also to suffering. By nature they are all good; they oversee people's lives and help them attain virtue and eudaimonia. In the popular cults, the middle creatures are revered, whose existence is tapped for example from dream experiences. However, what people assume about these beings is based only on opinions; Since direct observation of their work is impossible, it is not a question of certain knowledge. Therefore, a legislature should respect the religious traditions that concern the cult of such beings, but should not enact regulations or introduce innovations. Rather, his focus must be on the directly perceptible area of ​​the stars, because the celestial world is the home of - apart from the world soul - the highest-ranking living beings, the gods, whose rulers are directly in front of humanity and who are primarily due to be worshiped. Their cult should be carried out and regulated by the state.

The conversation turns to astronomy and the theology based on astronomical realities. The order of the movements in the sky is the expression of a divine overall concept, the spiritual comprehension of which leads the viewer to a wisdom and eudaimony that also proves itself in death. In terms of astronomical details, Epinomis largely follows the worldview of Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Nomoi . The planets are the visible bodies of the Olympian gods after whom they are named. The later common assignment of the individual planets to certain gods is shown systematically for the first time in the Epinomis . For example, the planet Venus belongs to the goddess Aphrodite (Latin Venus), the planet Mercury to the god Hermes (Latin Mercury).

In Epinomis it is admitted that astronomy was discovered by oriental and Egyptian "barbarians" and adopted by the Greeks. The reason for this is that the Middle Eastern and Egyptian climates favor sky observation, while the temperate climate of Greece is less suitable for this, but is best for acquiring virtue. The Greeks would have - as always when they took over something from the barbarians - improved the knowledge they received.

The final part of the work takes stock. Astronomy aimed at theological knowledge has proven to be the source of the really essential insights that lead man to happiness. Knowledge of mathematics and the Platonic dialectic are essential prerequisites for studying astronomy; thus they serve to prepare for the attainment of wisdom. The path of knowledge leads from the apprehension of the manifold to the understanding of a comprehensive unity, whereby ultimately the knower himself comes from the division to unity, becomes "one" and thus attains eternal bliss. It is a demanding path that is therefore only open to the few who are suitably educated. Those who master this task also qualify for the highest government offices. So the investigation returns to the original question, which has now been answered.

Special features of teaching

A striking feature of Epinomis is the rejection of the Platonic doctrine of ideas . It is said that apart from the soul there is nothing incorporeal. This denies the objective existence of an intelligible world outside of the soul ; the spiritual is immanent in the world of the soul and body . The author of Epinomis shares the rejection of an independent metaphysical existence of the ideas with Speusippus , Plato's successor as head ( scholarch ) of the academy. In contrast to Speusippos, he does not only deny the ideas, but also the numbers, an independent reality in their own realm of being. With the reduction of the incorporeal to the soul, he renounces a core component of the Platonic ontology . Also unplatonic is the thought that astronomy is the highest-ranking science that leads to wisdom.

Mathematical game

One part of the work (990c – 991b) deals with mathematical propaedeutics . It is about the planimetric representation of irrational relationships; so the diagonal of a square of area 1 is also the side of a square of area 2 with the length . If it is not possible to represent an irrational relationship planimetrically in this way - for example in - one resorts to "surface application" with the help of a geometric mean. The task is geometrical; this does not involve dealing with arithmetic incommensurability . The expression "geometry", literally "field measurement art", is described in the Epinomis as "very ridiculous"; the task of this science is rather to “make numbers similar, which are naturally dissimilar”, which is possible “thanks to the peculiarities of the surfaces”. What is meant is the geometric solution to the problem of finding a mean proportional to any two given numbers, even if there is incommensurability.

Other fonts

Philippus' other writings have been lost except for fragments; little is known of their content apart from their titles. He wrote a biography of Plato. His other works dealt largely with mathematical and scientific subjects as well as questions of ethics . They are not fully listed in the Suda , a Byzantine encyclopedia. Astronomical works were “About the distance between the sun and the moon”, “About the lunar eclipse”, “About the size of the sun, moon and earth” and “About planets”. Philippos dealt with meteorological questions in the treatises “About the lightning” and “About the winds”, with optics in “About seeing” and “About reflection”, with mathematical problems in “arithmetic” and in the writings “About Polygonalzahlen "," circle theory "and" averages "- issues that it sometimes may have interested also in astronomy aspect. The treatise “About Time” was probably about the calendar calculation . His interest in theology and mythology is evidenced by the titles of his writings "On the Gods" and "On the Myths". Several titles have survived from works that were devoted to topics of ethics: “About lust”, “About friends and friendship”, “About freedom”, “About the free”, “About anger”, “About affects” and "About (just) retribution (or reward)". He also wrote a treatise “On Eros” and “On Drawing”. In the book "About the Opuntian Lokrer" Philip probably discussed the cultural or constitutional history of the area that was his home or adopted home.

The beginning of Epinomis in the first edition, Venice 1513

reception

The first mention of Epinomis by name comes from Aristophanes of Byzantium . The assumption that their author was Plato, which was widespread in antiquity, led to their inclusion in the tetralogical order of Plato's works, which apparently dates back to the 1st century BC. Was introduced. The Epinomis was included in the ninth tetralogy. The attribution to Plato drew the dialogue - and with it Philippos' philosophy - strong attention.

The recipients of Epinomis included the Stoic Poseidonios and Cicero , Middle and Neo-Platonists and church fathers such as Clemens of Alexandria , Eusebios of Caesarea and Theodoret . In Gnosticism and the Hermetic dialogue also received attention. Philippos' studies of the calendar system also had a broad aftermath.

A prominent ancient proponent of the belief that the Epinomis cannot come from Plato was the late ancient Neo-Platonist Proclus .

No ancient textual witness to Epinomis has survived. The oldest surviving manuscript was made in the 9th century in the Byzantine Empire . The Latin-speaking scholars of the West did not know the Epinomis in the Middle Ages.

In the age of Renaissance humanism , dialogue was rediscovered in the West. The first Latin translation was done by the Italian humanist Marsilio Ficino . He published it in Florence in 1484 in the complete edition of his Plato translations. Although he was otherwise strongly influenced by Proclus, he did not follow his view on the question of authenticity, but considered the dialogue to be an authentic work of Plato.

The first edition was published by Aldo Manuzio in Venice in September 1513 as part of the complete edition of Plato's works published by Markos Musuros .

Sources, editions, translations

  • Francesco Aronadio, Mauro Tulli, Federico M. Petrucci (eds.): [Plato]: Epinomis . Bibliopolis, Napoli 2013, ISBN 978-88-7088-625-2 (critical edition by Tulli with introduction, Italian translation and commentary by Aronadio)
  • François Lasserre: De Léodamas de Thasos à Philippe d'Oponte. Témoignages and fragments . Bibliopolis, Napoli 1987, ISBN 88-7088-136-9 , pp. 157-188 (Greek texts), 367-393 (French translation), 593-659 (commentary) (comprehensive compilation of the relevant source texts).
  • Leonardo Tarán (Ed.): Academica: Plato, Philip of Opus, and the Pseudo-Platonic Epinomis . American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia 1975, ISBN 0-87169-107-8 (critical edition of the Epinomis with investigation and extensive commentary).
  • Franz Susemihl (translator): Appendix to the Laws (Epinomis) . In: Erich Loewenthal (Hrsg.): Platon: All works in three volumes , Vol. 3, unchanged reprint of the 8th, revised edition, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2004, ISBN 3-534-17918-8 , pp. 665–694 (translation only; edited version online )

literature

Remarks

  1. ^ Margherita Isnardi Parente : Filippo di Medma (?) E la cerchia di Platone . In: Archivio storico per la Calabria e la Lucania , Vol. 69, 2002, pp. 9-15; Hans Krämer: Philippos from Opús and the 'Epinomis' . In: Hellmut Flashar (ed.): Outline of the history of philosophy. Die Philosophie der Antike , Vol. 3, 2nd edition, Basel 2004, pp. 81–93, here: 81; François Lasserre: De Léodamas de Thasos à Philippe d'Oponte. Témoignages et fragments , Napoli 1987, p. 593 f .; John Dillon: The Heirs of Plato , Oxford 2003, p. 179 f.
  2. ^ Walter Burkert : Platon in Close-up , Stuttgart 1993, pp. 34-36; Walter Burkert: Philodems working text on the history of the academy . In: Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik , Vol. 97, 1993, pp. 87-94, here: 91 f. ( PDF; 61 kB ).
  3. Diogenes Laertios 3.37; for the interpretation of this passage see Leonardo Tarán (ed.): Academica: Plato, Philip of Opus, and the Pseudo-Platonic Epinomis , Philadelphia 1975, pp. 128-133 and Klaus Schöpsdau : Platon, Nomoi (laws). Book I – III. Translation and Commentary , Göttingen 1994, pp. 138–142.
  4. Leonardo Tarán (Ed.): Academica: Plato, Philip of Opus, and the Pseudo-Platonic Epinomis , Philadelphia 1975, p. 129 f .; Klaus Schöpsdau: Plato, Nomoi (laws). Book I – III. Translation and commentary , Göttingen 1994, p. 140.
  5. For a discussion of authorship see Leonardo Tarán (ed.): Academica: Plato, Philip of Opus, and the Pseudo-Platonic Epinomis , Philadelphia 1975, pp. 3–47, 133–139; Hans Krämer: Philippos from Opús and the 'Epinomis' . In: Hellmut Flashar (ed.): Outline of the history of philosophy. The philosophy of antiquity , vol. 3, 2nd edition, Basel 2004, pp. 81–93, here: 84; Hans Lier: Investigations on Epinomis , Diss. Marburg 1966 (research report p. 6-8, then Lier's own analysis with the result of the inauthenticity); Josef Pavlu : Supplements to the pseudoplatonic Epinomis . In: Wiener Studien , Vol. 56, 1938, pp. 27–44, here: 41 f. (for the linguistic argument).
  6. On the role of the world soul, see François Lasserre: De Léodamas de Thasos à Philippe d'Oponte. Témoignages et fragments , Napoli 1987, p. 593 f .; John Dillon: The Heirs of Plato , Oxford 2003, pp. 185-191.
  7. Epinomis 981b5-7, 983d2-4. Eugen Dönt turns against the common interpretation : Comments on Plato's late philosophy and Philip v. Opus . In: Wiener Studien , Vol. 78, 1965, pp. 45–57, here: pp. 54 f. and note 31. He thinks that Philip was rather assuming a third thing that stands above soul and body, the nous .
  8. See Roger Miller Jones: Incommensurable Numbers and the Epinomis . In: The American Journal of Philology , Vol. 53, 1932, pp. 61-66. A detailed commentary on the mathematical part is provided by Alan Robert Lacey: The Mathematical Passage in the Epinomis . In: Phronesis , Vol. 1, 1955-1956, pp. 81-104; see. Nathaniel B. Booth: Two Points of Translation in Plato Epinomis 990 c 5 - 991 b 4 . In: Phronesis , Vol. 2, 1957, pp. 160 f .; Josef Pavlu: Supplements to the pseudoplatonic Epinomis . In: Wiener Studien , Vol. 56, 1938, pp. 27–44, here: 33–36.
  9. Epinomis 990d.
  10. See also Árpád Szabó : A Praise to Old Pythagorean Geometry . In: Hermes , Vol. 98, 1970, pp. 405-421.
  11. François Lasserre: De Leodamas de Thasos à Philippe d'Oponte. Témoignages et fragments , Napoli 1987, p. 159 (Greek text) and 369 (French translation).
  12. Peri tou gráphein ; on the meaning of this title, see François Lasserre: De Léodamas de Thasos à Philippe d'Oponte. Témoignages et fragments , Napoli 1987, p. 601.
  13. ^ Leonardo Tarán: Proclus on the Old Academy . In: Jean Pépin, Henri Dominique Saffrey (eds.): Proclus lecteur et interprète des anciens , Paris 1987, pp. 227–276, here: 257–261.
  14. Parisinus Graecus 1807; see on this manuscript and its date Henri Dominique Saffrey: Retour sur le Parisinus graecus 1807, le manuscrit A de Platon . In: Cristina D'Ancona (Ed.): The Libraries of the Neoplatonists , Leiden 2007, pp. 3–28.