Elephant dog

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Elephant dog
Red-shouldered elephant dog (Rhynchocyon petersi)

Red-shouldered elephant dog ( Rhynchocyon petersi )

Systematics
Subclass : Higher mammals (Eutheria)
Superordinate : Afrotheria
without rank: Afroinsectiphilia
Order : Elephant jerk (Macroscelidea)
Family : Elephant jerk (Macroscelididae)
Genre : Elephant dog
Scientific name
Rhynchocyon
Peters , 1847

The proboscis ( Rhynchocyon ) are a genus of mammals from the family of the elephants (Macroscelididae). The five species of the genus are native to eastern and central Africa . There they inhabit wooded areas with closed tree tops and dense foliage on the ground. They represent the largest representatives of the elephants and, like the others, have a trunk-like elongated nose as a special feature. In addition, the front legs are noticeably shorter than the long hind legs, but the feature is not quite as pronounced as in the other elephants. The way of life of the elephant dog is only partially well studied. They are territorial and live in monogamous relationships that last for life. The food consists of a large number of invertebrates and is searched on the ground, sometimes also dug up. The nests made of parts of plants, which serve as shelter for the animals, are characteristic. Reproduction takes place all year round, a litter consists of one to three young animals. The mother animals visit their offspring only briefly during the day to suckle, the father animal does not participate in the rearing. The discovery of the elephant dog for science was made by the German naturalist Wilhelm Peters during his trip through southern Africa in the 1840s, and he subsequently described it as a genus of its own. The tribal history is less well researched, so far only isolated fossil finds have been found. All of today's species are currently more or less threatened.

features

Habitus

Gray-faced elephant dog ( Rhynchocyon udzungwensis )
Spotted proboscis dog ( Rhynchocyon cirnei )

The proboscis are the largest representatives of the proboscis. Their total length varies from 43.9 to 50.9 cm for the spotted proboscis ( Rhynchocyon cirnei ) to 55 to 58 cm for the gray-faced proboscis dog ( Rhynchocyon udzungwensis ). The head-torso length for the entire genus is 21.8 to 31.8 cm. The tail is between 21.3 and 27 cm long and thus reaches 85 to 90% of the length of the rest of the body. The body weight varies from 320 to 750 g. Outwardly characteristic features can be found in the overall narrow body with the arched back and the relatively smaller head compared to other trunk jumpers, which also has a trunk-like elongated nose that is very flexible. The legs are long and thin, with the hind legs longer than the front legs. However, the characteristic is not quite as clearly pronounced as with the other elephants. In terms of habit , the elephant dogs are less reminiscent of their mouse and rat-like relatives, but rather of very small ungulates .

The fur is long and coarser than that of the other elephants, but more varied in color and partly shiny. The typical speckled pattern of the spotted proboscis dog can sometimes be very weak in the other species as well. The eyes are large and have rounded pupils . The ears are held upright, the auricle is bare. The tail also has only a sparse coat of fur, which makes it look like a rat. The front and rear feet have four toes each, the innermost toe has receded. On the forefoot, the rays are two to four particularly long, whereas the outer, fifth ray is far back. On the much longer rear foot, which is roughly the length of the lower leg, the central ray (III) protrudes the furthest, the inner and outer rays (II and IV) are slightly shorter, while the outermost, analogous to the hand, is also the shortest . All toes have long and strong claws that are more curved on the front foot than on the back. Females have two pairs of teats , which are located in the abdomen and pelvic area. In all animals, glands are also formed in the rump area.

Skull and dentition features

The skull is between 62 and 71 mm long, on the zygomatic arches it is 33 to 38 mm wide. In the side view it has a dome-like bulge on the forehead line, in the top view it appears triangular and wide when pressed flat. This is caused by the very broad frontal bone , which hangs over the eye window and laterally goes around the nasal bone . The nasal bone is very elongated like the other elephants, but the tip is ossified in contrast to its relatives. The wide design of the skull also creates a wider nasal space. The occiput is retracted and not arched as in the other members of the family. A clear difference to the other trumpets can be found in the palatine bone of the underside of the skull, which has no pair of palatal windows. Characteristic features are also present in the dentition structure. The dental formula of elephant shrew is: . Overall, the dentition consists of 34 to 36 teeth. The upper incisors are mostly regressed, occasionally a single tooth appears. In this case it is small and has no function. Such rudimentary teeth can be formed both on one and on both sides. The indented tips of the lower incisors are noticeable. The upper canine is greatly enlarged and curved backwards like a saber. A sexual dimorphism can also be observed here, as the tooth in males is on average larger than in females. There is a small gap between the upper jaw and the rear dentition. The molars have moderately high tooth crowns ( hypsodont ), the chewing surface of the molars is dilambdodont , so they are equipped with two Λ -shaped ribs. The length of the upper row of teeth is 23.5 to 32.5 mm.

distribution and habitat

Distribution area of ​​the Proboscis species

The proboscis dogs live in central and eastern Africa, their range extends from the north and east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo through Uganda , Kenya to Malawi and northern Mozambique . They occur in the rainforest zone in the Congo Basin as well as in parts of the Somalia-Maasai bushland zone and in the coastal forests and the Zambezi-woodland zone in eastern Africa. As a result, their habitat consists mainly of tropical rainforests , partly deciduous forests or woodlands and thickets of the lowlands and mountainous areas. Mountainous regions where the elephants occur include the East African Trench and the Eastern Arc Mountains . Often closed canopies, dense undergrowth and a thick layer of leaves on the ground are prerequisites for the presence of the animals. In areas with a denser population of elephants, the soil is characterized by a loamy or sandy texture or grows on coral limestone. However, the subsoil rarely has high groundwater . In their area of ​​distribution, the proboscis mostly occur in a lower population density , which is lower than that of the proboscis ( Petrodormus ), which occurs sympatric in some landscapes .

Way of life

Territorial behavior

The way of life of the elephant dog has only been well researched in the case of the golden elephant dog. They are diurnal and pure ground-dwellers who move four-footed running and jumping at sometimes high speeds ( cursorial ). When running, they use a toe gait that is reminiscent of an even- toed ungulate , and sometimes high jumps occur, for example when fleeing from predators , which is sometimes reminiscent of springbok . In general, the animals are very attentive and alert, thanks to their well-developed sensory organs . Nests made of plant material serve as shelter. For this, the animals dig small, shallow hollows in the ground, which they line with leaves. The individual individuals live territorially and use areas of 1 to 5  hectares in size, which they mark on the rump with the secretion of their scent glands. However, the elephant shrews do not create special paths, as has been demonstrated in some representatives of Macroscelides and the elephant shrews. As with other elephants, the animals form monogamous pairs in which the territories can completely overlap. The joint activities are limited to the mating season , otherwise the partners go their own way. Intruders into the respective territories are always driven away by animals of the same sex. The communication takes place, among other things, by rhythmically beating the tail on the ground and drumming with the hind feet on the ground, which mainly takes place in stressful situations.

nutrition

Spotted elephant dog

The food of the elephant shrew, unlike the elephant shrews less heavily on insects aligned, but rather destroy a wide range and variety of invertebrates , in addition to beetles and ants and spiders , earthworms and hundred- and millipedes include. Sometimes they are very selective and take larger amounts from individual prey than they naturally occur in the environment. This can lead to regional positive correlations between the frequency of the proboscis and individual invertebrates. The animals generally look for food on the ground in piles of leaves and the like. Sometimes they dig small holes for worms or other prey living in the ground. The nose is used to probing during the search; the long tongue, which can be stuck out several millimeters in front of the nose, is used to subsequently pick up the prey. In contrast to the other representatives of the elephant, the metabolism of the elephant dog has hardly been investigated, which is due to the difficulties that have arisen up to now in keeping them in human care.

Reproduction

Mating is likely to take place throughout the year, it is mostly the only phase with coordinated joint activity of the tied partners. After around 40 to 42 days of gestation, a single young is born, but the litter size can also be up to three young. A young animal weighs around 80 g and is not very well developed ( nestling ) with only partially developed fur and closed eyes. It remains hidden in its own nest for around two weeks. The mother only visits it briefly once or several times a day to suckle. This type of rearing is generally referred to as the “mother's absenteeism system”. It has also been proven in other elephants, it may help to keep the young largely odorless and thus better protect them from predators. The father animal does not participate in the rearing, but it may be involved indirectly by driving away predators. Most likely, the young is already weaned after leaving the nest, since suckling mother animals have not been observed in the wild outside of the nest. The young become increasingly independent in the following days and try to establish their own territory after 20 weeks at the latest. Since the interval between two births is around 80 days - females are usually ready to receive again shortly after birth - female animals can give birth between three and six times a year, depending on external conditions. Life expectancy is estimated at a maximum of four to five years, the maximum age in human care was around 11 years.

Systematics

Internal systematics of elephants according to Heritage et al. 2020
 Macroscelididae  
  Macroscelidinae  
  Macroscelidini  


 Galegeeska


   

 Petrodromus


   

 Petrosaltator




   

 Macroscelides



  Elephantulini  

 Elephantulus



  Rhynchocyoninae  

 Rhynchocyon



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The proboscis are a genus within the family of the elephants (Macroscelididae) and the order of the same name (Macroscelidea). Family and order represent a group of smaller mammals endemic to Africa . They can be subdivided into six genera and two subfamilies. The proboscis dogs represent the only representative of the subfamily Rhynchocyoninae, which are thus monotypical . The second subfamily, the Macroscelidinae , on the other hand, includes the proboscis ( Petrodromus ), the elephant shrews ( Elephantulus ) and the genera Macroscelides , Galegeeska and Petrosaltator . From a phylogenetic point of view, the proboscis are the sister taxons to the other genera of the proboscis. Compared to the representatives of the Rhynchocyoninae, those of the Macroscelidinae are characterized by a significantly smaller body structure and an adaptation to mostly open and drier landscapes. As a result, they occur, with a few exceptions, in savannas and even desert-like areas. In addition to body size and living space, there are differences in the skeleton structure. The Rhynchocyoninae have four toes on the front and rear of the limbs, the Macroscelidinae have five in front and four to five in the back. In terms of the structure of their teeth, the proboscis dogs differ from the Macroscelidinae with their small but functional incisors due to their reduced or non-functional upper incisors. The former also have an elongated upper canine, while the latter is significantly smaller and in some cases has a variable shape. In addition, the members of the Rhynchocyoninae lack the palatal windows in the palatal bone , while these are clearly present in the representatives of the Macroscelidinae. Other defining features can be observed in the soft tissue anatomy. In the case of the proboscis, for example, the penis is less permeated with blood vessels , while the end has a spatula-shaped shape. In contrast, the male genital organ of the Macroscelidinae is characterized by a strong blood flow and a different shape of the tip. Ultimately, the two groups of elephants also differ in the position and number of pairs of teats in the females. According to molecular genetic analyzes, the separation of the Rhynchocyoninae and Macroscelidinae took place in the Lower Oligocene around 32.8 million years ago. A greater diversification of the proboscis then took place in the late Middle Miocene about 9.7 million years ago.

Internal systematics of the proboscis dogs according to Carlen et al. 2017
 Rhynchocyon  

 Rhynchocyon chrysopygus


   


 Rhynchocyon stuhlmanni


   

 Rhynchocyon cirnei



   

 Rhynchocyon udzungwensis


   

 Rhynchocyon petersi





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Golden elephant dog ( Rhynchocyon chrysopygus )

There are currently five types:

The dark elephant dog has long been a regional subspecies of the spotted elephant dog in the Congo Basin , R. c. stuhlmanni , led. However, as early as the late 1960s, some scientists suspected that it might represent an independent species, as the shape outwardly differs noticeably from the other representatives of the species. New molecular genetic data from 2017 confirm this view. A possibly sixth, currently undescribed species occurs in the northeastern coastal area of ​​Kenya in the Boni and Dodori National Reserves . It differs markedly from the other species by a different coloring with a gray-yellow head, chestnut-brown shoulders and back and raven-black hind legs. A measured specimen had a total length of 54.9 cm, a tail length of 25.6 cm and a weight of 610 g. Genetic studies indicate the shape is close to that of the golden elephant dog. However, so far only one individual has been examined, so that further analyzes are required.

In addition to today's species, another fossil is recognized:

Other extinct species were also initially placed in the genus Rhynchocyon , such as Rhynchocyon clarki and Rhynchocyon rusingae , but these were moved to the newly created genus Miorhynchocyon in 1984 by Percy M. Butler .

Research history

Wilhelm Peters

The genus Rhynchocyon received its first scientific description in 1847 by the German naturalist Wilhelm Peters . Peters was at this time on his journey through the southern parts of Africa , which lasted from 1842 to 1848. During this time he observed several animals near Quelimane in northern Mozambique and was able to catch two individuals, a male and a female, which he then used to name the genus and introduce the spotted elephant. The name Rhynchocyon is composed of the Greek words ρύγχος (rhynchos "trunk") and κύων ( cyon "dog"). Peters had given the scientific name because of the long nose and the large upper, dog-like canine teeth. Despite the apparently close relationship to other elephants, Peters noted in his first description that Rhynchocyon has "nothing in common with the mouse-like Macroscelides and Petrodromus ".

In 1918 Oldfield Thomas introduced the name Rhinonax , which he saw as a subgenus of Rhynchocyon . In his opinion, the differences were the partially developed maxillary incisors and the lack of the pattern of spots on the back. Thus, the red-shouldered proboscis dog and the golden proboscis dog formed the sub-genus Rhinonax with the latter as a type, while the spotted proboscis the only representative of the sub-genus Rhynchugocyon (the gray-faced dog Proboscis was unknown at the time). In an overall revision of the elephants by Gordon Barclay Corbet and John Hanks from 1968, both pointed out that the feature of the sometimes formed incisors of the upper jaw occurs in all types of elephant dog. Therefore there are no sub-genera within the proboscis dogs today.

The name Rhynchocyoninae for the subfamily of the proboscis was first mentioned in 1872 by Theodore Gill . Previously, in 1855, Paul Gervais had already referred to the superordinate group as the Tribu des Rhynchocyons and removed it from the Tribu des Macroscélidens , which corresponds to the current division into the two subfamilies.

Tribal history

In contrast to the elephant shrews, the elephant shrews have only a sparse fossil record; today's representatives are not known to be fossilized. Miorhynchocyon could be regarded as a possible direct predecessor of the genus Rhynchocyon . This genus is occupied with several species from the Lower and Middle Miocene in East and South Africa 20 to 14 million years ago. The found material consists of skull parts, mandibular fragments, isolated teeth and parts of the body skeleton. Significant fossil remains have been discovered in Songhor, Fort Ternan and on the island of Rusinga in Kenya. Characteristic differences between Miorhynchocyon and today's species are the formation of the upper incisors and the generally lower crowns of the rear molars. The independent genus character of Miorhynchocyon is sometimes questioned and the form is viewed as an older version of Rhynchocyon . Further precursors from the same period can be found with Brevirhynchocyon and Hypsorhynchocyon in southern Namibia .

From western Egypt , individual teeth and long bones have been described as belonging to Rhynchocyon , but without a precise assignment of species. The finds come from the karst region of Sheikh Abdallah in the Libyan desert . They are dated to an age of 11 to 10 million years, a time when the region was significantly more humid. Closer to today's representatives is the extinct species Rhynchocyon pliocaenicus . So far, this has only been proven in Laetoli in northern Tanzania , known for its early human footprints. It occurs there only in the Upper Laetoli Beds , the age of which is 3.6 to 3.5 million years. Around a dozen objects have been discovered, which are made up of lower and upper jaw parts as well as individual vertebrae and long bones. Overall, they suggest an animal that was around 20% smaller than the recent species. In addition, compared to Miorhynchocyon, it had higher-crowned molars, although some tooth features are still reminiscent of this.

Threat and protection

All types of the elephant dog are more or less endangered. According to IUCN is Golden elephant shrew ( "high risk" endangered ), the Rotschulter-elephant shrew and the gray-faced elephant shrew are considered "at risk" ( vulnerable ), while the spotted elephant shrew "low risk" ( near threatened ) substance. The reasons for this lie primarily in the progressive deforestation for the removal of building and fuel material or for the expansion of human settlements and economic areas. The associated destruction of the habitat led to the fragmentation of the distribution areas of all species. As a result, the population of the possible new, as yet undescribed species on the northeast coast of Kenya is already endangered. To a much lesser extent, hunting the animals for food also has an impact on the individual populations.

literature

  • Elizabeth J. Carlen, Galen B. Rathbun, Link E. Olson, Christopher A. Sabuni, William T. Stanley and John P. Dumbacher: Reconstructing the molecular phylogeny of giant sengis (Macroscelidea; Macroscelididae; Rhynchocyon). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 113, 2017, pp. 150-160 doi: 10.1016 / j.ympev.2017.05.012
  • GB Corbet and J. Hanks: A revision of the elephant-shrews, Family Macroscelididae. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural history) Zoology 16, 1968, pp. 47-111
  • Stephen Heritage: Macroscelididae (Sengis). In: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 8: Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2018, pp. 206-234 ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4
  • Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (Eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 282-287
  • Ronald M. Nowak: Walker's Mammals of the World . Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999 ISBN 0801857899
  • Galen B. Rathbun: The social structure and ecology of Elephant-shrews. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie Beiheft 20 (Advances in Behavioral Research), 1979, pp. 1-76

Film documentaries

  • Kobolds of the Coastal Forest - The Arabuko Dogs , TV documentary by Herbert Ostwald, Germany 2008, 45 minutes

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b F. Rovero, GB Rathbun, A. Perkin, T. Jones, DO Ribble, C. Leonard, RR Mwakisoma and N. Doggart: A new species of giant sengi or elephant-shrew (genus Rhynchocyon ) highlights the exceptional biodiversity of the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania. Journal of Zoology 274 (2), 2008, pp. 126-133 ( [1] )
  2. ↑ a b c d e Galen B. Rathbun: Why is there discordant diversity in sengi (Mammalia: Afrotheria: Macroscelidea) taxonomy and ecology? African Journal of Ecology 47, 2009, pp. 1-13
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 282-287
  4. ↑ a b c d e f g Stephen Heritage: Macroscelididae (Sengis). In: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 8: Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2018, pp. 206-234 ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4
  5. ^ A b Wilhelm Peters: Scientific trip to Mossambique: carried out on the orders of His Majesty the King Friedrich Wilhelm IV in the years 1842 to 1848. Berlin, 1852, pp. 1–205 (pp. 100–110) ( [2] )
  6. ^ A b Gea Olbricht and William T. Stanley: The topographic distribution of the penis and mammary glands in sengis (Macroscelidea) and its usefulness for taxonomic distinctions. Zoosystematics and Evolution 85 (2), 2009, 297-303
  7. ↑ a b c d e f G. B. Corbet and J. Hanks: A revision of the elephant-shrews, Family Macroscelididae. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural history) Zoology 16, 1968, pp. 47-111
  8. ↑ Jan Ihlau, Friederike Kachel and Ulrich Zeller: Graphical description of the ventral side of a sengi's (Macroscelides proboscideus) skull. Afrotherian Conservation 4, 2006, pp. 11-12
  9. ^ M. Hoffmann, Galen B. Rathbun, F. Rovero, A. Perkin, N. Owen, and N. Burgess: The distribution of the genus Rhynchocyon in the Eastern Arc Mountains, with an emphasis on the Blackand-rufous Sengi, Rhynchocyon petersi . Afrotherian Conservation 12, 2016, pp. 3–8
  10. ↑ Barry G. Lovegrove and Metobor O. Mowoe: The evolution of micro-cursoriality in mammals. The Journal of Experimental Biology 217, 2014, pp. 1316-1325
  11. ^ A b c Galen B. Rathbun: The social structure and ecology of Elephant-shrews. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie Beiheft 20 (Advances in Behavioral Research), 1979, pp. 1-76
  12. ↑ EG Sauer: On the social behavior of the short-eared elephant shrew Macroscelides proboscideus. Zeitschrift für Mammaliankunde 38, 1973, pp. 65-97
  13. ^ Gea Olbricht: Longevity and fecundity in sengis (Mavcroscelidea). Afrotherian Conservation 5, 2007, pp. 3-5
  14. ↑ a b Steven Heritage, Houssein Rayaleh, Djama G. Awaleh and Galen B. Rathbun: New records of a lost species and a geographic range expansion for sengis in the Horn of Africa. PeerJ 8, 2020, p. E9652, doi: 10.7717 / peerj.9652
  15. ^ Mike Perrin and Galen B. Rathbun: Order Macroscelidea - Sengis (Elephant-shrews). In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 258-260
  16. ^ PF Woodall: The penis of elephant shrews (Masmmalia: Macroscelididae). Journal of Zoology 237, 1995, pp. 399-410
  17. ^ HA Smit, B. Jansen van Vuuren, PCM O'Brien, M. Ferguson-Smith, F. Yang and TJ Robinson: Phylogenetic relationships of elephant-shrews (Afrotheria, Macroscelididae). Journal of Zoology 284, 2011, pp. 133-143
  18. ↑ a b c d Elizabeth J. Carlen, Galen B. Rathbun, Link E. Olson, Christopher A. Sabuni, William T. Stanley and John P. Dumbacher: Reconstructing the molecular phylogeny of giant sengis (Macroscelidea; Macroscelididae; Rhynchocyon). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 113, 2017, pp. 150-160
  19. ↑ Galen B. Rathbun: Sengi Taxonomy - a 2017 update. Afrotherian Conservation 13, 2017, pp. 9-10
  20. ↑ Samuel Andanje, Bernard Risky Agwanda, W. Grace Ngaruiya, Rajan amine and Galen B. Rathbun: Sengi (Elephant shrew) observations from Northern coastal Kenya. Journal of East African Natural History 99 (1), 2010, pp. 1-8
  21. ^ A b Rajan Amin, Galen B. Rathbun and Samuel Andanje: Conservation concerns for Afrotheria in northern coastal Kenya. Afrotherian Conservation 8, 2011, pp. 15-16
  22. ^ A b Percy M. Butler and A. Tindell Hopwood: Insectivora and Chiroptera from the Miocene rocks of Kenya Colony. Fossil Mammals of Africa 13, 1957, pp. 1–35 ( [3] )
  23. ^ A b Percy M. Butler: Macroscelidea, Insectivora and Chiroptera from the Miocene of East Africa. Palaeovertebrata 14 (3), 1984, pp. 117-200
  24. ^ Wilhelm Peters: A new mammal species from the orders of the insect eater. Report on the negotiations of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences that were suitable for publication in 1847, pp. 36–38 ( [4] )
  25. ↑ Oldfield Thomas: Notes on Petrodromus and Rhynchocyon. The Annals and magazine of natural history 9 (1), 1918, pp. 364-370 ( [5] )
  26. ^ Theodore Gill: Arrangement of the families of mammals with analytical tables. Prepared for the Smithsonian institution. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 11, 1872, pp. 1–98 ( [6] )
  27. ^ Paul Gervais: Histoire naturelle des Mammifères. Paris 1855, pp. 1–418 (p. 238) ( [7] )
  28. ^ A b Patricia A. Holroyd: Macroscelidea. In: Lars Werdelin and William Joseph Sanders (eds.): Cenozoic Mammals of Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, London, New York, 2010, pp. 89-98
  29. ^ Brigitte Senut: The Macroscelididae from the Miocene of the Orange River, Namibia. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Namibia 19, 2003, pp. 119-141
  30. ↑ Brigitte Senut: Macroscelididae from the lower Miocene of the Northern Sperrgebiet, Namibia. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Namibia 20, 2008, pp. 185-225
  31. ↑ Brigitte Senut and G. Georgalis: Brevirhynchocyon gen. Nov., A new name for the genus Brachyrhynchocyon Senut, 2008 (Mammalia, Macroscelidea) preoccupied by Brachyrhynchocyon Loomis, 1936 (Mammalia, Carnivora). Communications of the Geological Survey of Namibia 15, 2014, p. 69
  32. ↑ HA Wanas, M. Pickford, P. Mein, H. Soliman and L. Segalen: Late Miocene karst system at Sheikh Abdallah, between Bahariya and Farafra, Western Desert, Egypt: Implications for palaeoclimate and geomorphology. Geologica Acta 7 (4), 2009, pp. 475-487
  33. ^ Alisa J. Winkler: Macroscelidea. In: Terry Harrison (Ed.): Paleontology and Geology of Laetoli: Human Evolution in Context: Volume 2: Fossil Hominins and the Associated Fauna. Springer Science, 2011, pp. 67-74
  34. ^ IUCN: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.2. ( [8] ); last accessed on July 23, 2015

Web links

Commons : Proboscis  - album with pictures, videos and audio files