Roma in Romania

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Roma form the second largest ethnic minority in Romania after the Hungarians . There are no reliable figures on the size and proportion of the population. Their official number rose from 535,140 in 2002 to 619,007 in 2011. Some authors consider the Roma to be the largest minority in the country. Many Roma are socially, materially and politically marginalized.

term

In contrast to the German-speaking area, where the terms “ Roma ” and “ Sinti and Roma ” compete with each other, in Romania the only collective category for the large number of different subgroups to which Sinti does not belong is the term “Roma” (also in the spelling "Rroma") is used. In addition, the Romanian foreign name țigani ( gypsy ), which does not exist in Romani, also appears as a self-name; to what extent has not been scientifically investigated. Official Romanian documents have spoken of “Roma” since the late 1990s.

This met with considerable contradiction in politics and society. Romanian nationalists launched a campaign in 2009 for a law to reinstate țigani and eradicate roma . They were unsuccessful in doing so, but in 2010 the Liberal Democratic Party , ruling party and member of the European People's Party , announced a very similar legislative initiative. The aim is "to protect Romanians in regions hostile to the Gypsies, since the bad treatment and negative discrimination against the Roma could unjustifiably affect Romanians as well". From this point of view, the Roma minority is not counted among the Romanian population. The reason for the rejection of the term “Roma” is usually based on the likelihood of confusion between “Roma” and “Români” (= Romanian ). For Romanian President Traian Băsescu , changing the name “Gypsy” to “Roma” was a “major political mistake”. Băsescu stated that Romanians were being confused with Roma across Europe. The statement sparked outrage among numerous civil society organizations over the implication that the Roma are not Romanians. It led to a protest demonstration in the Romanian capital. The Ministry of Culture and Foreign Affairs, the Roma National Agency, the General Secretariat of the Government, the Department for Interethnic Relations and the National Council for Combating Discrimination objected, citing an EU directive from 2000. a conceptual separation between “Romanians” and “Roma” would be missed anyway, because one would continue to stick with “Roma” in other countries. In the end, the Romanian Senate rejected the official renaming to igani in 2011.

Contributions by Roma to high culture find “little ethnically oriented attention” if they are honored in public, as in the case of the highly respected jazz pianist Johnny Răducanu , who is generally attributed as “Romanian”. They then often come into focus as representative cultural ambassadors of their country.

Since the mid-1990s - at the suggestion of Roma representatives - the orthographic new creation "Rroma" (singular) or "Rromi" (plural) was introduced in order to counter the argument of the likelihood of confusion and to avoid a return to the term "gypsy". The form "Rroma" is only used sporadically by the Romanian authorities, but has partly found its way into the international scientific literature.

The Roma minority does not form a homogeneous “people” in Romania either, since at no point in time were there politically controlled and socially anchored processes of people construction as in the case of the Romanian (or Hungarian) majority population. It has remained fragmented into numerous groups to this day. Your speakers emphasize the individual independence, the groups distance themselves from each other. In their self-image and group designation, they still refer to the now historical group-typical economic practices. Larger ethnic sub-groups form the Kalderash ("coppersmiths", literally "boiler smiths"), the Corturari ( Țiganii nomazi , "tent gypsies"), the Băeși ("basket weavers") and the Țigani de mătasă ("silk gypsies").

Demographics

The proportion of "gypsies" in Transylvania (Austrian census 1850)
The proportion of Roma in Romania's municipalities as recorded in the 2002 census.

As is generally the case with Roma, valid information on the proportion of the population and its development is also impossible for Romania and its individual administrative districts, since the respondents in a census are often interviewed

  • Despite their origin from the Roma minority, in the course of assimilation processes they are now classing themselves into other nationalities ( Romanians , Hungarians , Turks ),
  • refuse a commitment to ethnic origin out of fear of disadvantage and discrimination or
  • do not have any identification papers and are therefore not questioned at all.

The result is “official census results with a minimal number of professing Roma”, which sub-authorities refer to in order to “not have to carry out the legally prescribed promotional measures” and “to save themselves work and financial resources”.

The general census of 1930 in Greater Romania counted 262,501 (1.6%) "Gypsies". In 1948 there were only 53,425. Even taking into account the assignments of territory and the murder of more than 10,000 Roma under the Antonescu regime, there is a significant count difference. As a result of the 1977 census, the number had increased again to 227,398 (1%) people, then to 409,723 (1.8%) in 1992. In contrast, a 1998 study by the Romanian Institute for Research on Quality of Life listed 1,002,381 self-identified Roma. She put the total number between 1,452,700 and 1,588,552, while the last census in 2002 showed only 535,250 (2.5%) Roma. Many estimates go well beyond the state census figures from 2002. According to the latest country report by the US State Department (2011), there are between 1.8 and 2.5 million Roma living in Romania - which would make up around 10% of the population. The report critically contrasts the 2002 census figures with a government report from 2008, which assumes 1.2 million. NGOs and non-Romanian speakers prefer the figure of 2.5 million Roma, remain slightly below or increase to three million.

The lower limit is currently 700,000 (2008) or around 760,000 a generation earlier (1985).

The numbers, which are often accurate down to the last single, suggest accuracy, but their extraordinary range shows the general lack of trustworthiness of figures. They are not based on scientific studies, but on interest-based surveys and answers.

Since 1990 (the fall of the Iron Curtain), but especially since 2002 (no visas for Romanian citizens in the Schengen area ) and 2007 (Romania's admission to the EU), a massive wave of Romanian Roma emigrated to Western Europe. Florin Cioabă, a key Roma leader, said in an interview that a continuation of this trend could mean the loss of the Roma minority for Romania.

history

In the Danube principalities

It can be assumed that the first groups of "Gypsies" immigrated to the Danube region as early as the 13th century, and then to Transylvania and Wallachia in the 14th century. The minority is first documented in 1385 for Wallachia and 1416 for Transylvania. Those referred to as “gypsies” described themselves as pilgrims, groups of penitents or bearers of papal messages.

As early as the 16th century, there is evidence of their existence in a slave-like state in both principalities. Individual princes settled Roma in the Carpathian Mountains - that is, on the border with the Kingdom of Hungary at that time , where they were supposed to repel military incursions from there and received some perks in return.

They could be given away, sold or leased by their owners, the secular or spiritual landlords. There were different degrees of bondage. As a craftsman, Robi domneşti were able to pursue gainful migration within the sovereign territory, while Robi mănăstireşti worked as a farm worker on monastic estates.

Constantin Mavrocordat , the prince of Wallachia and Moldavia, abolished slavery in the Danube principalities in the middle of the 18th century , but excluded the Roma from it. Mihail Kogălniceanu estimated the number of Roma in Wallachia and Moldova at 200,000 in 1840, and at 600,000 in Europe as a whole. Of the approximately 200,000 Roma in the middle of the 19th century, 80,000 were slaves of the princes; they were allowed (or had to) move around in order to earn money as craftsmen, gold washers, traders, musicians or jugglers. For this they had to deliver a certain annual amount to the prince. They were forbidden to leave the country. Most of the others worked as servants or on the estates of boyars and Orthodox monasteries. They were exposed to their masters without protection. Officially, they were not allowed to be killed; however, the murder of a Roma was not prosecuted.

During the Revolution in Wallachia in 1848 , the Provisional Government abolished slavery; it was reintroduced after the intervention of Turkish troops. During the Crimean War (1853), another ordinance on the liberation of slaves was issued in Wallachia, and the Principality of Moldova joined shortly afterwards. Slavery was finally abolished in Moldova in 1855 and in Wallachia in 1856. On February 20, 1856, Prince Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei signed a corresponding decree in Wallachia . A large part of the liberated left the country and migrated mainly to Central Europe. Others settled on the outskirts of the cities and some went on outpatient activities with changing locations. The boyars were compensated for the forced release of their slaves; they received 10 ducats for a slave . In Wallachia and Moldova, the lack of freedom of the minority resulted in a severe loss of the language, Romani .

In today's northwestern parts of the country

The Roma are to be considered separately in what is now the north-western part of Romania, which until 1918 belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary , the Principality of Transylvania and the Habsburg Monarchy . In 1476 a charter was issued by the Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus , who removed the Gypsies of Sibiu from the Transylvanian princely jurisdiction. Since Maria Theresa there have been systematic state efforts to enforce assimilation . These included a ban on language , a ban on marriage within the minority, a general ban on minority cultural practice or the ban on leaving the specified domicile (to "wander"). In 1786 serfdom was revoked under Joseph I. The social marginalization, which was reflected in the residential areas on the outskirts of the villages, remained: for Sibiu there is evidence that the members of the minority had the task of cleaning the city, which is considered to be “dishonest” (= “dishonorable”).

In the Kingdom of Romania

In the first decades of the Kingdom of Romania , the situation of the Roma improved, who were largely able to pursue their craft trades unhindered. The economic crisis years after the First World War, the restructuring of the economy and the associated decline in many craft professions, however, again intensified the tensions between the Roma and the Romanian majority society. On the other hand, there was a lively Roma press landscape at this time; seven Roma newspapers appeared in the country between 1930 and 1940. After the First World War, Romania received large areas of the Kingdom of Hungary , including Transylvania, in the Treaty of Trianon . Numerous Roma lived in these regions too. Their livelihoods were mainly independent forms of employment in handicrafts (boiler, copper and tinsmiths) and trade, often carried out on an outpatient basis. With them, Romani has asserted itself as the primary language alongside Hungarian and Romanian. In the 1930 census, only 37.2 percent of Roma stated Romani as their mother tongue, the remaining two thirds spoke Romanian, Hungarian or another regional language. Around this time, the Roma were mostly living in their own neighborhoods or as a community on the outskirts of villages. Not all Roma were segregated from the majority society, some had adopted Romanians' cultural norms and there were cases of Roma and non-Roma marriages. Regardless of this, numerous politicians expressed racist prejudice against the Roma in the 1930s, which is why they lived in a constant climate of threat.

Antonescu regime

Under the rule of the military regime of Ion Antonescu , which was allied with the National Socialists , a partial ethnic cleansing took place, which mainly affected the Roma in Romania. One of the best-known racial theorists of the time, Iordache Făcăoaru, suggested in 1940 that all Roma living “nomadic” and “semi-nomadic” be put in labor camps, where they would die out within a generation. The settled Roma should be sterilized. Ion Antonescu first commented on the "Gypsy problem" at the beginning of February 1941, when he presented his program for ethnic cleansing at a meeting of the Council of Ministers. As a first step, he wanted to have all Roma removed from Bucharest. They should fish in the swamps of the Danube Delta, which are still to be drained , or perhaps be put in labor camps in the steppe region of Bărăgan . He made a similar statement at a meeting on April 4, 1940. After the Bucharest Roma, the Roma should disappear from all other cities. As a justification for the action against Roma, he cited the report of a doctor from the Ministry of Health, who made the conditions in the residential areas of the Roma responsible for the spread of typhus . In the autumn of 1941, high administrative officials had agreed to transport all ethnically undesirable persons to Transnistria .

In May 1942 the plans for the deportation of the Roma took shape. The Roma were registered to divide them into two categories: nomadic and sedentary Roma. The first category included Roma, who were alleged to pose a threat to public order. According to an order from the Interior Ministry on May 17, the Roma count had to be completed by the end of the month. With immediate effect, the Roma were no longer allowed to leave their whereabouts. At the end of May, Ion Antonescu ordered the inconspicuous deportations from his villa in Predeal by telegram, which began on June 1st and lasted until August 15th. General Constantin Vasiliu (1882-1946) was entrusted with carrying out the operation and described his task as “collecting and peeling the fur of stray dogs”. The first phase up to October 2nd consisted of the deportation of 11,474 “nomadic” Roma by train in cattle wagons to Transnistria. When it came to the deportation of the second category, the Minister of the Interior ordered on July 22, 1942 not to deport the military and their families and to sort out the remaining “undesirable” Roma. Of the 31,438 Roma of the second category counted in May, only 12,497 were ultimately designated for deportation because the men of the group that had not been deported were indispensable in the army. The Roma of the sedentary category who were “dangerous and undesirable” - at Vasilius's insistence there were more than planned: 13,245 - were deported in the second phase between September 2nd and 16th. At a meeting of the Council of Ministers on October 13, Antonescu declared all further deportations of Roma and Jews to be suspended.

A total of around 41,000 Roma living in Romania were counted. An official list of the Roma of both categories deported to Transnistria by September 1942 names a total of 24,684 people. It is estimated that between 25,000 and 30,000 were deported to Transnistria and settled there in camps and villages. According to various estimates, between 1,500 and 6,000 of these Roma survived the Porajmos , the rest died of malnutrition, cold, illness and other consequences of inadequate care.

During the rule of the Communist Party

After the Communist Party came to power , some of the Roma managed to improve their economic basis again, as many were given permanent employment opportunities as part of the planned industrialization of the country. Open persecution and discrimination were prohibited. On the other hand, towards the end of its rule, the regime denied the existence of a Roma ethnic minority.

Situation since the 1989 revolution

After the end of the communist regime and the establishment of a market economy system, Roma were among the first to be dismissed. When looking for a job, discrimination was the order of the day. But the deterioration in their situation does not only affect their income. Roma also live more often than Romanians of other ethnic groups in settlements without running water and without electricity; some of the children live on the street . Traditional handicrafts have now largely been given up, as has the associated (employment) migration, and trade as a market feeder has taken its place. Rejection of the Roma from the majority population resulted in pogroms after the system change and the associated loss of control. Both complexes of causes - poor economic conditions and various forms of exclusion - led to the emigration of many Roma to Western Europe. They thus became part of the migration of Romanians to the west, which resulted in increased distancing on the part of other population groups and from the spectrum, not only, but in particular, of right-wing organizations. It was alleged that the members of the Roma minority were not Romanians, which in turn met with sharp criticism from other parts of Romanian society, which are divided on this issue (see section “Term”). A study of the attitude of the Romanian transformation society towards the Roma minority revealed "a deep division in society and a conscious delimitation of the high-income, western-oriented and educated people from other [social] strata", including a particularly large number of Roma. Especially in this part of society that is pressing for exclusion, there is very little contact with real Roma, while personal experiences “generalizations about social position (lose) significance” and lead to positive judgments. The proportion of “positive attitudes and experiences in the Romanian context” was rated as “remarkably high”.

Another problem is the poor education of many Roma. At the turn of the millennium, 44% of men and 59% of women were illiterate. After this problem was largely ignored by the respective governments in the first years after the revolution, the situation of the Roma has been the subject of government investigations since 2001/2002, in which it is pointed out that the education of the Roma in particular is being improved must. The Ministry of Education ordered a certain minimum number of Roma to be admitted to universities; the latter partially provide additional study places for Roma on their own initiative. From 1992/1993, special places for Roma were set up at the University of Bucharest, initially limited to the Faculty of Social Work. From 1998 onwards, a larger number of places at eight universities in Romania were reserved for Roma students as part of affirmative measures . In primary schools, despite official equality, lessons are often ethnically separated, ie Roma are segregated from other Romanian children in their own classes. This may be partly due to the refusal of other Romanians to have their children educated with Roma children. The school dropout rate among Roma is significantly higher than that of other nationalities in Romania.

There is therefore a contradiction between social reality and constitutional equality of rights. Article 4, paragraph 2 of the Romanian Constitution of 1991 promises all Romanians equal rights “regardless of race, nationality, ethnic origin, language, religion, gender, opinion, political affiliation, property or social origin”.

The explicit discrimination of Roma in job or rental advertisements and the refusal of access to restaurants or discos, as was previously the case, are now a criminal offense. However, Roma are still marginalized by large parts of the Romanian public. According to a survey shortly after 2000, 30% of the Romanian majority population believed that Roma should not travel abroad. 36% believed that Roma should best live on the margins of society, 50% advocated mandatory, state-controlled birth control. Within large parts of the Romanian majority population, the term “gypsy” is a common swear word (also for another Romanian). It was also used as such by President Traian Băsescu against a journalist who appeared to be intrusive to him.

There are around 200 to 300 Roma associations in Romania, but no recognized umbrella organization, which makes it difficult for the Roma to represent their interests, but also for the government's work with regard to Roma due to the lack of universally accepted contacts. The Roma Party ( Partida Romilor ) received around 44,000 votes in the 2008 parliamentary elections , which corresponds to a share of only 0.6%. Since the Roma belong to the 19 officially recognized ethnic minorities in Romania, the party still has a seat in the Chamber of Deputies .

Some Roma were economically successful, not infrequently by trading iron and steel from disused production sites - now scrap - or processing old materials. Sometimes they show their wealth in a striking way. “With rising status”, Romanians from the majority of the population reject such forms of self-portrayal and at the same time argue that “gypsies” always remain “gypsies”.

The current problems of the Roma in Romania - as in other countries - are, in the opinion of many experts, due to numerous, complex, interacting factors. This includes the significantly worse material starting point compared to the majority population, a mostly unofficial segregation of the Roma in many areas of society, but also a tenacious adherence to conventional structures on the part of some Roma. Due to a long tradition of different forms of discrimination, many Roma distrust state measures and private offers of help, which ultimately often fail due to a lack of cooperation and initiative.

The Romanian government set up its own office in 2004 ( Agenția Națională pentru Romi , “National Agency for Roma”), which specifically deals with the problems of the Roma minority.

Some well-known Romanian Roma

  • Musician
  • Politician
  • athlete

literature

on the history of the Roma in Romania
  • Franz Remmel : The Roma of Romania. People without a hinterland , Vienna, 1993

Movie

  • The Curse of the Hedgehog (camera: Dumitru Budrală), documentary film about a year of a nomadic Roma family living in extreme poverty in the southern Carpathians

See also

Web links

Commons : Roma in Romania  - Collection of images

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ adz.ro , General German newspaper for Romania : The Germans and Hungarians reached historic lows , August 29, 2012
  2. ^ Maria Sass, Herbert Uerlings, Iulia Karin Pătruț: Europe and its 'Gypsies' . Literature and cultural history studies, Sibiu 2007, p. 20
  3. ^ "Descendants of the Romans" against Roma . In: TAZ . March 28, 2009. Retrieved October 18, 2013.
  4. ↑ Romania: "Gypsy Roma instead!" . roma-service.at. April 1, 2009. Retrieved May 24, 2013.
  5. ↑ punkto.ro of October 10, 2010, accessed on October 24, 2010
  6. ^ Romanian President for "Gypsies" instead of "Roma" . In: Die Presse , September 10, 2010. Accessed May 24, 2013. 
  7. ^ Romania: Roma do not want to be called "Gypsies" . In: Die Presse , December 2, 2010. Retrieved May 24, 2013. 
  8. ↑ Romania wants to reintroduce the term "gypsy" . In: Kleine Zeitung , December 3, 2010. Archived from the original on October 19, 2013. Retrieved on May 24, 2013. 
  9. ↑ punkto.ro of February 9, 2011, accessed on May 4, 2011
  10. ↑ Esther Quicker: The "Gypsies" and us. Voices on the Roma in the Romanian transformation society. In: Yearbook for Research on Antisemitism. 19 (2010), p. 71; “List of Romanian composers”, in: www.worldlingo.com/ma/enwiki/de/List_of_Romanian_composers.
  11. ↑ Like Radacanu to the Romanian Culture Days in Munich: The Romanian Culture Days in Munich 2011 . Society for the Promotion of Romanian Culture and Tradition e. V. Archived from the original on March 18, 2013. Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved May 24, 2013. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ge-fo-rum.de
  12. ↑ adz.ro of December 10, 2010, accessed on December 15, 2010
  13. ↑ Gernot Haupt: Antiziganism and social work: elements of a scientific foundation, shown using examples from Europe with a focus on Romania . Frank & Timme GmbH, Berlin 2006. p. 65. ISBN 978-3-86596-076-4
  14. ↑ Brigitte Mihok, Stephan Müller: Roma in Romania - A little insight . In: ZAG - anti-racist magazine . No. 05/1992, September 30, 1992, pp. 18-22. Retrieved May 24, 2013.
  15. ↑ “… belong to other nations with whom they identified…”, see: Viorel Achim, Gypsy Research ans Gypsy Policy in Romania, 1920–1950, in: Michael Zimmermann (ed.), Pp. 157–174, here: pp. 158.
  16. ↑ "... because they considered the term 'Gypsy' to be demeaning ...", see: Viorel Achim, Gypsy Research ans Gypsy Policy in Romania, 1920–1950. In: Michael Zimmermann (Ed.), Pp. 157–174, here: p. 158.
  17. ↑ Costel Bercus: The situation of Roma in Romania. In: Max Matter (Ed.): The situation of the Roma and Sinti after the EU expansion to the east. P. 29
  18. ↑ Gernot Haupt: "They don't have their own religion ..."? About religious antiziganism against Roma and Sinti. Lecture given on November 14, 2007 on the occasion of the XVIII. European Congress of Ethnic Groups in Klagenfurt, (PDF; 117 kB)
  19. ↑ Achim Viorel: Gypsy Research ans Gypsy Policy in Romania, 1920–1950. In: Michael Zimmermann (Ed.), Pp. 157–174, here: p. 158.
  20. ↑ Romii din România ( Romanian , PDF; 575.82 kB) edrc.ro. Retrieved May 24, 2013.
  21. ↑ Populația după etnie ( Memento of November 5, 2010 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on October 13, 2012 (Romanian)
  22. ↑ Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2011 United States Department of State • Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor: ROMANIA EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (accessed May 17, 2011).
  23. ↑ SVP politicians nurture prejudices against Roma . Ed .: Humanrights.ch . Retrieved May 24, 2013.
  24. ^ Sinti and Roma: Paris puts pressure on Romania . In: Frankfurter Rundschau , August 5, 2010. Retrieved May 24, 2013. 
  25. ↑ Romania's Roma get together . In: Die Presse , January 6, 2010. Archived from the original on March 31, 2016. Retrieved on May 24, 2013. 
  26. ↑ For example, Amnesty International: Online petition for Roma in Romania: No illegal evictions! . Amnesty International Germany. Archived from the original on November 13, 2011. Retrieved May 24, 2013.
  27. ↑ Page no longer available , search in web archives: Interview with the Swiss Roma and civil rights activist Stéphane Laederich@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.deza.admin.ch
  28. ↑ Roland Schlumpf: Will the Roma soon invade? . In: Tages-Anzeiger , January 30, 2008. Archived from the original on December 10, 2008. Retrieved on May 24, 2013. 
  29. ↑ Page no longer available , search in web archives: Neue Zürcher Zeitung on Swiss television@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.nzzformat.ch
  30. ↑ Romania sees the end of heavy emigration: appeasements and uncertainties about the free movement of people . In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung , April 1, 2008. Retrieved May 24, 2013. 
  31. ↑ Alexandre Zouev, Peter Ustinov. Generation in jeopardy: children in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, page 164. Published by UNICEF .
  32. ↑ Regele Cioaba se la Plange Guvern că Ramane fără supuşi . Gandul.info. September 10, 2007. Retrieved May 24, 2013.
  33. ↑ All information according to: Martin Bottesch, Franz Grieshofer, Wilfried Schabus (Eds.): The Transylvanian Landler 1. Part 1 . Böhlau-Verlag, Vienna 2002, ISBN 3-205-99415-9 ( limited preview in the Google book search).
  34. ↑ Martin Bottesch et al .: The Transylvanian Landler: a forensics . Vol. 2, Böhlau, Vienna 2002, p. 383
  35. ^ A b Guillaume Lejean: Ethnography of European Turkey . Gotha 1861, p. 11.
  36. ↑ a b All the preceding information according to: Martin Bottesch, Franz Grieshofer, Wilfried Schabus (eds.): The Transylvanian Landler 1. Part 1 . Böhlau-Verlag, Vienna 2002, ISBN 3-205-99415-9 , p. 383 .
  37. ^ Rudolf Lindau: Wallachia and Moldau. Edition 2. , Dresden / Leipzig, 1849. P. 51
  38. ↑ Mihail Kogălniceanu: Sketch of a story of the gypsies, their customs and their language . Verlag JF Cast'sche Buchhandlung, Stuttgart 1840. p. 35
  39. ^ Rudolf Lindau: Wallachia and Moldau. Edition 2. Verlag Arnold. Dresden / Leipzig, 1849. p. 70
  40. ↑ JL Neigebaur in: Hamburg literary and critical sheets . Volume 31st edition Jan. - March 1855. Ed. F. Niebour, Hamburg 1855. P. 440
  41. ↑ a b c Martin Bottesch, Franz Grieshofer, Wilfried Schabus (eds.): The Transylvanian Landler 1. Part 1 . Böhlau-Verlag, Vienna 2002, ISBN 3-205-99415-9 , p. 384 .
  42. ^ Agronomische Zeitung: Organ for the interests of the whole of agriculture. No. 17/1856. Reclam publishing house. Leipzig 1856
  43. ↑ Romanian ecarisaj poliţienesc . Based on: Vladimir Solonari: Ethnic Cleansing or "Crime Prevention"? In: Anton Weiss-Wendt (Ed.): The Nazi Genocide of the Roma: Reassessment and Commemoration. Berghahn, New York 2013, p. 109
  44. ↑ Vladimir Solonari: Purifying the Nation. Population Exchange and Ethnic Cleansing in Nazi-Allied Romania. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2010, pp. 269-278, 283
  45. ↑ Achim Viorel: Gypsy Research and Gypsy Policy in Romania 1920–1950. In: Michael Zimmermann (ed.): Between education and destruction. Gypsy Policy and Gypsy Research in Europe in the 20th Century. (Contributions to the history of the German Research Foundation, Vol. 3), Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 157–174
  46. ^ Vasile Ionescu: Deportations from Romania. Project Education of Roma Children in Europe, p. 7
  47. ↑ Brigitte Mihok: The persecution of the Roma. A repressed chapter in Romanian history. In: Mariana Hausleitner, Brigitte Mihok, Juliane Wetzel (eds.): Romania and the Holocaust. On the mass crimes in Transnistria 1941–1944. Metropol, Berlin 2001, p. 25
  48. ↑ Judith Okely: continuity and change in the living conditions and culture of the Roma, Sinti and Kale . In: Reetta Toivanen, Michi Knecht: European Roma - Roma in Europe , Berliner Blätter, ethnographic and ethnological contributions, issue 39/2006, LIT Verlag, ISBN 3-8258-9353-7 , pages 25-42, p. 30
  49. ↑ EU study: Czech Roma feel most often discriminated against in comparison , 10 December 2009, Roma in the Czech Republic
  50. ^ Roland Schopf: Sinti, Roma and the rest of us: Contributions to problematic relationships . LIT publishing house. Münster, 1994. pp. 82 f.
  51. ↑ a b Keno Verseck: Romania , Beck, 3rd edition 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-55835-1 , p. 127
  52. ↑ Esther Quicker, The "Gypsies" and Us. Voices on the Roma in the Romanian transformation society, in: Yearbook for Research on Antisemitism, 19 (2010), pp. 66 ff., 73 f.
  53. ↑ Costel Bercus: The situation of Roma in Romania . In: Max Matter (Ed.): The situation of the Roma and Sinti after the EU expansion to the east. Otto Bennecke Foundation. V&R unipress. Göttingen, 2005. p. 29
  54. ↑ Costel Bercus: The situation of Roma in Romania . In: Max Matter (Ed.): The situation of the Roma and Sinti after the EU expansion to the east. Otto Bennecke Foundation. V&R unipress. Göttingen, 2005. p. 30
  55. ↑ Costel Bercus: The situation of Roma in Romania . In: Max Matter (Ed.): The situation of the Roma and Sinti after the EU expansion to the east . Otto Bennecke Foundation. V&R unipress. Göttingen, 2005. p. 38 f.
  56. ↑ Costel Bercus: The situation of Roma in Romania . In: Max Matter (Ed.): The situation of the Roma and Sinti after the EU expansion to the east . P. 40 f.
  57. ↑ See Constitution of November 21, 1991, in German
  58. ↑ Costel Bercus: The situation of Roma in Romania . In: Max Matter (Ed.): The situation of the Roma and Sinti after the EU's eastward expansion , series of contributions from the Academy for Migration and Integration H9, Göttingen, 2005, pages 29–46, p. 31
  59. ↑ Costel Bercus: The situation of Roma in Romania . In: Max Matter (Ed.): The situation of the Roma and Sinti after the EU expansion to the east . Otto Bennecke Foundation. V&R unipress. Göttingen, 2005. p. 29
  60. ↑ welt.de of May 21, 2007, accessed on October 24, 2010
  61. ^ Ivanka Graffius: Strengthening the political participation of Roma women in Romania . In: Max Matter (Ed.): The situation of the Roma and Sinti after the EU expansion to the east . P. 104
  62. ↑ Central Electoral Office of Romania, accessed on October 24, 2010 ( Memento from October 4, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 2.1 MB)
  63. ↑ Judith Okely: continuity and change in the living conditions and culture of the Roma, Sinti and Kale . In: Reetta Toivanen, Michi Knecht: European Roma - Roma in Europe , Berliner Blätter, Ethnographic and Ethnological Contributions, Issue 39/2006, LIT Verlag, ISBN 3-8258-9353-7 , pages 25-42, p. 31
  64. ↑ Esther Quicker: The "Gypsies" and us. Voices on the Roma in the Romanian transformation society. In: Yearbook for Antisemitism Research, 19 (2010), p. 63 f .; Keno Verseck : Romania . Publishing house CH Beck. Munich, 1998. p. 25
  65. ↑ Gernot Haupt: Antiziganism and Religion: Elements of a Theology of Roma Liberation . LIT publishing house. Münster, 2009. p. 30.
  66. ↑ Website of the National Agency for Roma ( Memento of October 8, 2010 in the Internet Archive )