Technical college

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Portal of the TH Karlsruhe (today Karlsruhe Institute of Technology ) founded in 1825 .

Technische Hochschule ( TH ) refers to a university that focuses on the natural and engineering sciences . The institutions of higher technical education in the German-speaking area have received this name since the 1870s; from 1899 they were given the right to award the academic degrees of Diplomingenieur and PhD engineer . After 1945, most of these technical universities were converted into technical universities (TU) by expanding the range of subjects .

Since 2009, more and more universities of applied sciences have been renamed "technical universities"; However, unlike the older ones, these new THs do not have the right to award doctorates .

This article presents the historical development of higher technical educational institutions with a focus on the German-speaking area.

Preforms of higher technical educational institutions

In the course of the 18th century, in the wake of mercantilism , the Enlightenment and the revolution, a broad spectrum of vocational and technical educational institutions emerged across continental Europe. In addition to the traditional Latin schools , a variety of technical teaching institutions emerged in the German-speaking area, which gave the impression of a multi-part "education system". However, this lacked a direct connection, as the individual educational institutions addressed different social groups.

Technical education for the common people took place in the newly founded industrial schools . At the same time, the bourgeoisie was taught in the course of the Enlightenment in secondary schools , commercial Sunday schools, drawing and construction schools, provincial art schools, philanthropy and commercial schools. Higher educational institutions such as the knight, military, construction and mining academies primarily served the upper bourgeoisie and the nobility.

Most of the technical schools were of a modest level and were short-lived. The mountain schools were an exception . They grew above the general level of the other technical schools and became mining academies, which already deserved the character of technical colleges . It was only from these mining academies that significant impulses for the development of technical sciences and their universities came from in the course of the century. The attempt there to establish a mathematical and scientific foundation for subject education and the existing approaches to combining teaching and research already pointed the way to technical higher education in the 19th century. Although the universities attempted to establish technological subjects based on this model in the 1770s, they were ultimately unable to create a proper reference to the practical application of theoretical knowledge. The mining academies were therefore unrivaled role models and "the only technical universities that the 18th century produced on German soil". This is the only place where university technical or vocational training was offered until the first decades of the 19th century.

But neither the mining academies nor the universities (and the existing school types of the lower educational levels) formed the foundation for the polytechnic schools of the 19th century in the German-speaking area. It was not until the École polytechnique , founded in Paris in 1794 , that its basic idea of ​​the practical applicability of scientific methods and knowledge of mathematics and natural sciences to technical subjects provided the decisive impetus for the emergence of technical higher education. It thus became the archetype of a university of technical science.

Polytechnic schools were founded in 1794–1840

Founding of higher technical education from 1762 to 1939

The École polytechnique

The École centrale des travaux publics (Central School for Public Works), founded in Paris in 1794 , was intended to replace the old engineering schools that the revolutionaries had viewed as instruments of the ancien régimes during the French Revolution . A year later it was renamed École polytechnique . The founding fathers included the mathematician and engineer Lazare Carnot and the physicist and mathematician Gaspard Monge .

The École polytechnique , which is geared towards state-military tasks, taught its young engineers the general theoretical fundamentals of natural sciences, mathematics and mathematical-technical drawing in a kind of general scientific pre-school. This was followed by practical training at the so-called Écoles d'application for bridge and road construction, mining, shipbuilding and military engineering. This dichotomy can still be found today in the breakdown into basic and main studies. Initially, under Napoleon, who subordinated the school to the Minister of War in 1805, almost exclusively engineer officers were trained, especially for the artillery.

The professors of the École Polytechnique have been chosen by the best schools in France; numerous famous scientists emerged from it. It was of a high standard for the time and carried out a strict selection process. Her educational idea of ​​understanding technology as an applied natural science spread across the continent not only through its exemplary character, but especially through the textbooks of foreign graduates.

Wave of start-ups in the German-speaking area

In the first decades of the 19th century, a large number of vocational schools and polytechnic schools were founded in the states of the German-speaking area that are still important and significant today (including in Berlin 1821, Nuremberg 1823, Karlsruhe 1825, Munich 1827, Stuttgart 1829, Hanover 1831, Darmstadt 1837). This wave of start-ups must, however, be seen under the aspect that some institutions developed from earlier military or construction schools as well as other older institutions, some of which only expanded their subject area, became independent or were expanded. For example, the polytechnic school in Karlsruhe took over the structures of the secondary school that already existed there. The range of subjects was supplemented by individual areas from the engineering and construction school.

The models for these start-ups were on the one hand the civil service and on the other hand trade training for the developing industrial society. The fragmentation of the German-speaking area (Germany) into several countries led to the establishment of commercial and polytechnical schools, mostly in the capital cities of the individual countries. The tasks of the technical civil service have grown in the emerging modern states, which have acquired more responsibilities, and lay mainly in state mining, the military and construction, from 1840 also in railway construction, which was nationalized in the course of the 19th century.

In general, the early commercial and polytechnic schools played only a marginal role in supplying the early industrial industry with technical skilled workers. Only a minority of technicians working in industry had graduated from polytechnic schools; the majority had acquired their technical expertise in industrial practice. In addition, the schools did not see themselves as institutions for research and knowledge generation, but primarily as teaching institutions. Due to the high theoretical part of the training, there was no short-term success in practice.

In most of the German states, the training was still closely linked to the civil service and tailored to it. The trade institute in the Prussian-Brandenburg town of Berlin was an exception; its lessons were tailored to the needs of private industry and simulated certain working methods that were common in industry.

Rise of polytechnic schools in the period of industrialization

Due to high level differences, the position of polytechnic schools in the education system was still unclear in the mid-1840s. For example, Vienna and Karlsruhe were given the rank of “technical universities” at an early stage, whereas other polytechnical schools in the mid-1940s could only demonstrate the level of “technical lycees ”, located between university and middle school. Although the technical colleges sought equivalence with the universities at an early stage, significant steps in this direction did not take place until the 1860s / 70s.

The Karlsruhe Polytechnic assumed a role model function for the development of the polytechnic schools after it was fundamentally reorganized by State Councilor Karl Friedrich Nebenius in 1832. Besideius integrated existing technical schools into the polytechnic and thus expanded it both in terms of content and personnel. Following the example of the universities, the reorganization, based on faculties, led to the division into five technical schools: the engineering, construction, forestry, trade and higher trade schools. The management structure was also similar to the university scheme with its deans, senate and rector. As at universities, the entry age of the students was 15 years. The students, who are taught by more than 30 teachers, first completed a preschool, in which the mathematical and scientific knowledge foundation was to be laid. This was followed by practice-oriented training in the technical schools. From the 1840s onwards, other polytechnic schools such as Stuttgart and Hanover took over this structure of training. One recognizes in it the structural model of the French École Polytechnique and the École d´application . However, the two stages of training in France were spatially separated from one another, while in Germany they were located in the same school. There was also a difference in the fact that the École Polytechnique had a higher level mainly in mathematics and the natural sciences until the middle of the century. The polytechnics of the 1830s and 40s were primarily training centers; research did not yet play an essential role.

The polytechnical level of education was far above the general level of industrial production and below that of the universities. This posed a major problem, because on the one hand the graduates were underqualified for jobs with university requirements, on the other hand, because of the theory-heavy training, they lacked the practical experience for an engineering profession in industry. It was only after the breakthrough of industrialization after 1850 that the graduates of the Polytechnika should find sufficient employment opportunities in private industry corresponding to their qualifications.

The Academization Process - From Polytechnic School to Technical University

From the 1850s onwards, the development of the polytechnic was less influenced by the demands of industry than by its striving to make education more scientific. In the course of this process of academization, the requirements for entry into a polytechnic school and with it their level of education increased. Around the middle of the century, Ferdinand Redtenbacher , professor at the Karlsruhe Polytechnic, pushed ahead with the process of academising the polytechnic schools. He also expanded the range of subjects to include humanities disciplines. He wanted to do justice to the “cultural tasks” of his educational institution. The model of a school with a range of subjects approaching that of a university was exemplary for new polytechnic schools. The federal polytechnic school in Zurich, founded in 1855, is an outstanding example of how this idea can be implemented. It was conceived from the start as a university and should serve the higher study of the exact, political and humanistic sciences. With its very good reputation from the start, it attracted students from all over Europe.

The Association of German Engineers (VDI) achieved a general reorganization and upgrading of the polytechnics in the German states . In 1864, its chairman, Franz Grashof , called for the same educational requirements for attending polytechnic schools as at universities, as well as the same exams, expansion of mathematics and natural sciences, greater use of humanistic subjects and university constitutional forms. These demands were not new, but they now corresponded to the level of performance achieved by the polytechnic schools. They were implemented in the following year when Karlsruhe was the first German polytechnic to receive the full university constitution. Following the reorganization of the Polytechnika, which lasted until the end of the 1870s, the Polytechnika was renamed "Technical University" with a certain delay. It was not until 1885 that Karlsruhe was given the name “Technical University”. In the states of the German Empire founded in 1871, the renaming was completed by 1890.

This reform was intended to achieve two main goals: on the one hand, an analogous legal status for greater independence in teaching administration and, on the other hand, greater prestige for technical universities. The adoption of symbols, such as the wearing of an official costume similar to the university gown, should show the equality with the universities. It was part of the university constitution that the technical universities elected a rector and deans, had the right of appeal and had a senate as the most important decision-making body. Classes were now divided into semesters instead of annual courses, and students were given greater freedom to teach and study.

High industrialization led to a significant expansion and differentiation of the range of subjects at universities towards the end of the 19th century. While around 1870 an average of about 70 technical and natural science subjects were represented at technical universities, there were more than 100 in 1880, around 200 in 1890 and more than 350 in 1900 at the Technical University of Berlin. The sometimes still theory-heavy training was better suited to the needs of industry adapt, technical laboratories have now been increasingly introduced in order to establish experimental teaching and research in technical subjects. This was, on the one hand, a reaction to the practice-oriented research carried out by industry itself in test laboratories and, on the other hand, to the upswing in technology in the USA . In the US-American engineering training, the practical laboratory instruction was more important than in the German Reich. With the expansion of technical laboratories and the associated redesign of the course, the technical universities acquired their modern character. The scientific education was now of a higher quality because it also included experimental research. With the independent and continuous research tasks of the technical universities, an essential prerequisite for the ever more emphatically demanded equality with the universities was given.

Obtaining the right to award doctorates

In the process of equality with the universities, the granting of the right to award doctorates was a further milestone. The basis for this were stricter admission requirements, which now also included a secondary school leaving certificate. In addition, the so-called "general departments" were expanded, in which mathematics, natural sciences, but also humanities and political sciences were combined. The technical universities were given the right to habilitation even before the right to award doctorates, since it was not a matter of a separate academic degree, but of determining suitability for teaching. In the 1890s, the conflict over the right to award doctorates became a vital question for the technical universities, especially because the universities vehemently opposed it.

In 1894 a committee of delegates from the technical universities demanded the right to award doctorates for chemists for the first time. Although this demand was justified by the education that was equivalent to the universities, this attempt failed. Only when Prussia went it alone did a turning point. On the occasion of the anniversary celebration of the Technical University of Berlin in October 1899, Kaiser Wilhelm II granted the technical universities in Prussia the right to award the degree of "Diplomingenieur" (Dipl. Ing.) After a diploma examination. Graduated engineers were able to obtain a doctorate in engineering sciences (Dr.-Ing.) After a further examination . A Dr.-Ing. Honorary (E.h.) was intended for "men who have made outstanding contributions to the advancement of technical sciences". The technical universities were able to award the Dr.-Ing. E. h. award in accordance with the conditions of the doctoral degree regulations. High scientific standards were set for the doctorate in order to prevent criticism from the universities. By 1901, the other German states followed Prussia's initiative and granted their own universities the right to doctorate.

At the beginning of the 20th century there were technical universities in the German Empire in the royal cities of Berlin , Braunschweig , Darmstadt , Dresden , Karlsruhe , Munich and Stuttgart , as well as in the Prussian provincial capitals of Breslau , Danzig and Hanover (until 1866 also the royal seat), as well as in the Prussian Aachen since 1870. The Freiberg Bergakademie in the Kingdom of Saxony was treated as a technical university.

The special route to higher technical education in Great Britain

In contrast to continental Europe, the training of a higher technical education was very slow in Great Britain despite the enormous industrial lead. The reason for this lay in the organization of British industry. Almost all of the factors in the British economy were in private hands. All important components of the infrastructure such as canals, harbors, bridges and the railway network had been built by private companies and were still maintained by them. Thus the British state had no interest in technical training for its officials.

The associations of British engineers also stuck to the previous training method. The possibility of practical training only existed in companies or with freelance engineers. This form, as well as the content of the training, was established as early as 1771 by the Institution of Civil Engineers , an association of the UK's engineering elite. Such alliances were very similar to those of the scientific community , as research, exchange and self-learning were also considered ideals here, but experience and tradition were still considered to be the most important components of technical (training) education and had no interest in promoting them through a to replace higher technical education.

There were attempts to set up technical schools and chairs as early as the 20s and 30s of the 19th century, but these failed due to the tradition of the engineering associations. In Scotland and Ireland, on the other hand, technical chairs were established in Glasgow in 1840 and in Belfast in 1851, even with express royal support. Similar efforts in England, such as the Royal College of Chemistry (1845) and the Royal School of Mines (1851), were only of theoretical, but not of practical and technical importance.

But when the success of higher technical education in the German-speaking area (Germany) became apparent in the second half of the 19th century , the British parliamentarians radically changed their minds about this new development. They suddenly saw in the development of a higher technical education system an opportunity to make up for their deficit in relation to continental Europe. In the 1870s, for example, technical chairs were established in relatively new “universities”. However, these “universities” did not have the right to award doctorates and were more likely to be viewed as preparation courses for exams at the University of London .

It was during this time that the two major exceptions to the slowdown in British development were established. These are exceptions, since at that time they were the only serious start-ups in the field of higher technical education. In 1871 the Royal Engineering College was established to train officials for service in the Indian Public Works Department in a three-year course. Seven years later, the guilds and City Council of London merged to form the City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education . In the following years, this institute founded two important schools for lower and higher technical education.

At the turn of the century, the renowned universities included the new discipline in their curriculum. In 1891, for example, Cambridge converted its chair for mechanics into one for engineering. Oxford established such a chair in 1907. Only from this point in time was higher technical education recognized by the engineering associations as a partial alternative to traditional practical training.

Technical universities in the First World War

The First World War brought a profound change in the daily work of the technical universities, which had both inhibiting and promoting effects. On the one hand, there was a sharp drop in the number of students and lecturers because, in addition to the conscripts, many went to the front voluntarily with national enthusiasm. The number of students dwindled from around 12,000 in the winter semester 1913/14 to around 2,000 when the war broke out. Budget cuts caused by the war hampered science, teaching and research alike. On the other hand, the technical and scientific development of the war raised research questions that increased the importance of technical universities for arms production and the development of war technology. A systematic mobilization of science and technology did not take place at first, among other things because some war-relevant research directions such as high-frequency technology, which was important for communications, were still in their infancy. A major reason for the delay was that the traditional military elites had not taken into account a lengthy, material-intensive trench warfare in the course of the “ Schlieffen Plan ”. Their image of war, which was outdated at that time, that strategic troop movements and the bravery of their soldiers were more important than the development of modern weapon systems, showed a disdain for technology. In the course of the war, this not only resulted in considerable arms and supply problems, but also the importance of science and technology as a production factor was misjudged. In contrast, the leading engineers in the country saw this war as a kind of "test of strength" in technology and economy, which the industrially stronger and more successful in research nation would win.

With the “ Hindenburg Program ” from 1916, the aim of which was to mobilize all resources from society and industry, the state recognized the importance of technical universities. Nevertheless, in the context of the so-called “ auxiliary service law ” , the Supreme Army Command was still considering closing the universities in favor of the remaining students being employed in the armaments industry. In the end, the view prevailed that technical research and teaching were necessary to find new weapon systems and to improve industrial performance. Newly established national research councils should monitor research and promote it in a targeted manner. The budgets of some universities were also increased again, but there were hardly any research-related detachments of the remaining scientists from the front. The role of the technical universities remained mixed, with many different tasks assigned to them. Some universities served as temporary hospitals or soldiers' quarters, others, such as the Technical University of Berlin-Charlottenburg, dealt with significant armaments research on a large scale. War-related research focused on the chemical industry, in particular the development of more efficient poison gases and their control, the improvement of aviation, the development of modern weapon systems based on the British tanks , wireless communication, a more reliable and more accurate weather forecast, and the development of new painkillers and drugs.

After the war there was a huge wave of returns to universities, coupled with new matriculations. The numbers rose again from around 2,000 students in the winter semester 1917/18 to around 8,000 in the following winter semester, only to be around 17,000 a year later. The peak was reached in 1923/24 with 25,000 students.

Technical universities in the time of National Socialism

Initial situation - Weimar decline by March 1933

At the time of the transition between the Weimar Republic and the Nazi state , the universities tried to adopt a neutral political position. The majority of the professors were nationally conservative. The Nazi regime later knew how to mobilize part of this political camp with its predominantly anti-democratic stance. The politicization of the universities did not come from the professors, but in this sense the students in particular were active. The National Socialist German Student Union (NSDStB) grew to become the strongest political force within the university even before 1933.

Formation - March 1933 to autumn 1934

The so-called synchronization of technical colleges and universities that took place at the beginning of the Nazi regime had two major consequences: firstly, due to the law on the restoration of the civil service of April 7, 1933, “non-Aryan” and politically undesirable university teachers lost their positions; secondly, a leadership principle replaced it the traditional self-government of the universities, the implementation of which was associated with great difficulties in practice.

A systematic reorganization of science and teaching did not take place. However, there were plans to unite the technical colleges with the universities in terms of both content and infrastructure. So in Berlin a single large university (university town) called "Adolf Hitler University" was to arise, which was to be both a university and a technical college. The planners of this and later ventures, primarily the Reich Ministry of Education , referred to older, similar projects from the time of the Weimar Republic. However, the plans were dropped again, especially because of the protests from the technical universities.

Consolidation - autumn 1934 to 1939

Between 1934 and 1939, studies and research at universities normalized. The lack of reorganization of the doctrine, as well as the withdrawal of the fear-inducing radicals within the party, led to the system getting used to. The universities cooperated with the various National Socialist power blocs, of which the NSDStB had lost much of its influence. In this phase, a science of a military nature was to be integrated into the universities, which, however, provoked displeasure among the professors and failed. The only exception here is the TH Berlin-Charlottenburg, which introduced the subject "Defense Science" - even if only for a short time. It served the Army Weapons Office as its own research center. Further plans for amalgamation of the universities and technical colleges in Breslau, Braunschweig / Helmstedt and Prague in 1938/39 failed as before in Berlin under the same circumstances.

Radicalization in World War II

With the outbreak of the war, the Nazi state again intervened more strongly in everyday university life. The universities in the German Reich lost some of their students through the use of young men as soldiers or military service helpers. The attempt to instrumentalise the technical universities through new institutes for "state technology" for war plans was unsuccessful. The attempts of the Nazi regime to gain control of the technical universities show the importance of training future engineers and scientists for the "Greater German Reich", because Hitler's system of rule was based also and above all on the good functioning of science and engineering.

Technical universities in the post-war period

Development to technical universities

In the 1960s to 1980s, most of the technical universities in the German-speaking area were renamed "Technische Universität" - mostly with a broader range of subjects than before - which went hand in hand with a further gain in prestige and a higher proportion of basic research.

Only very few universities still have the designation “ Technische Hochschule” in their names, for example the Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen , the ETH Zurich and the ETH Lausanne in Switzerland.

Technical universities in East Germany

Equivalence of educational qualifications.

When it was founded in 1949, there were three technical universities in the GDR: the TU Dresden , the Bergakademie Freiberg and the University of Architecture in Weimar . In the 1950s, six more universities specializing in certain branches of industry were founded: Dresden University of Transport (1952), TH Magdeburg (heavy engineering, 1953), TH Karl-Marx-Stadt (mechanical engineering, 1953), TH Leuna-Merseburg (chemistry, 1954), University of Civil Engineering Leipzig (1954), TH Ilmenau (electrical engineering, 1954).

In the course of the “III. University reform ”, the GDR also founded ten engineering colleges (IHS) in 1969 in Berlin-Wartenberg, Cottbus, Dresden, Köthen, Leipzig, Mittweida, Warnemünde-Wustrow, Wismar, Zittau and Zwickau. Similar to the universities of applied sciences in the west that were established around the same time, they were primarily intended to train application-oriented engineers and were characterized by a high degree of specialization based on the division of labor with a limited range of subjects. By 1989, most engineering universities were granted the right to award doctorates and post-doctoral qualifications to (university) technical universities (1977: TH Leipzig, 1988: TH Wismar, TH Zittau, 1989: TH für Seefahrt Warnemünde-Wutsrow, TH Cottbus, TH Zwickau; 1990: TH Köthen) upgraded. In addition, the duration of the study was increased from 4 to 4.5 years (i.e. from 8 to 9 semesters), so that the qualifications obtained there were recognized as equivalent after reunification within the meaning of Article 37, Paragraph 1, Clause 2 of the Unification Treaty.

Nevertheless, most of these specialist universities remained comparatively small and often only had a few hundred students. The Science Council therefore recommended in 1991 that the majority of these smaller THs should be transferred to universities of applied sciences . He justified this with the fact that the expansion of all locations to fully-fledged TH would not only have significantly exceeded the forecast need for university-trained engineers, but above all the financial strength of the new federal states.

The processing of the THs led to the formation of a new type of university, the so-called (technical) universities, which was previously unknown in East Germany. Universities of applied sciences do not have the institutional right to award doctorates and habilitation. An academic upgrade (right to award doctorates, etc.) of the East German universities of applied sciences with a university history is currently (2019) not recognizable. You only have the option of a “cooperative doctorate” with a German university or an equivalent university.

Renaming of universities of applied sciences to technical universities

As of 2009, the designation of the Technical University , which was only used by RWTH Aachen at the time, was given to universities of applied sciences with a technical focus, but without granting the right to award doctorates . The beginning was made in 2009 by the Technical University of Wildau and in 2010 by the Technical University of Central Hesse . In March 2013, the Bavarian cabinet decided to rename the Deggendorf , Ingolstadt , Nuremberg universities of applied sciences and the Regensburg / Amberg-Weiden cooperation .

This was followed in 2015 by the Technical University of Cologne , in 2016 the Technical University of Brandenburg , the private Technical University of Georg Agricola in Bochum and the Technical University of Bingen , in 2018 the Technical University of Lübeck and the Technical University of Rosenheim , in 2019 the Technical University of Ulm , the Technical University of Aschaffenburg and the Technical University of Ostwestfalen-Lippe .

See also

literature

Overview displays:

  • Karl-Heinz Manegold: History of the technical universities. In: Laetitia Boehm , Charlotte Schönbeck (Hrsg.): Technology and education. (Technology and Culture, Vol. 5.) Düsseldorf 1989, pp. 204-234.
  • Walter Kaiser, Wolfgang König (ed.): History of the engineer. One profession in six millennia. Munich 2006.
  • Walter Rüegg (Hrsg.): History of the University in Europe. Volume 3: From the 19th Century to the Second World War (1800–1945). Munich 2004.

To the pre-forms of higher technical educational institutions

  • Helmuth Albrecht : The beginnings of the technical education system. In: Laetitia Boehm, Charlotte Schönbeck (Hrsg.): Technology and education. Düsseldorf 1989, pp. 118-153.

For the foundation phase 1800–1840:

  • Klaus-Peter Hoepke: History of the Fridericana. Stations in the history of the University of Karlsruhe (TH) from its founding in 1825 to the year 2000. Karlsruhe 2007. (PDF file; 9.2 MB)
  • Wolfgang König: Between administration and industrial society. The establishment of higher technical educational institutions in Germany in the first decades of the 19th century. In: Reports on the history of science . 21, 1998, pp. 115-122.

Rise of polytechnic schools in the period of industrialization

  • Wolfgang König : The technician movement and the right of technical universities to award doctorates. In: Karl Schwarz (Ed.): 1799–1999. From the building academy to the technical university, Berlin history and future. Berlin 2000, pp. 123-129.
  • Tobias Sander: Crisis and competition. On the social situation of engineers and technicians in Germany 1900–1933. In: Quarterly for social and economic history. 91, 2004, pp. 422-451.

To technical universities in the First World War

  • Wolfgang König: Technocracy, Democracy and Dictatorship. The engineers in the world wars and in the interwar period 1914–1945. In: Walter Kaiser, Wolfgang König (ed.): History of the engineer. Munich 2006, pp. 217–222.
  • Bettina Grundler: Between stagnation and new beginnings. The First World War and the development of the TH Braunschweig in the Weimar Republic. In: Walter Kertz (Ed.): Technical University of Braunschweig 1745–1995. Hildesheim 1995, pp. 345-364.
  • Bettina Grundler: Technical education, university, state and economy. Lines of development in technical higher education 1914–1930. The example of the TH Braunschweig. Hildesheim 1991.

To technical universities under National Socialism

  • Michele Barricelli , Michael Jung, Detlef Schmiechen-Ackermann (eds.): Ideology and obstinacy. The technical universities in the time of National Socialism , Wallstein, Göttingen 2017, ISBN 978-3835330986
  • Noyan Dinckal, Christof Dipper , Detlev Mares (eds.): Self- mobilization of science. Technical universities in the "Third Reich". Darmstadt 2010.
  • Michael Grüttner : The German universities under the swastika. In: John Connelly, Michael Grüttner (ed.): Between autonomy and adaptation. Universities in the dictatorships of the 20th century. Paderborn 2003, pp. 67-100.
  • Herbert Mehrtens : The University in the Net of the Ideological, 1933–1945. In: Walter Kertz (Ed.): Technical University of Braunschweig. From the Collegium Carolinum to the Technical University 1745–1995. Hildesheim 1995, pp. 479-507.
  • Herbert Mehrtens: Collaboration Relationships. Natural and technical sciences in the Nazi state and their history. In: Christoph Meinel, Peter Voswinckel (eds.): Medicine, natural science, technology and National Socialism. Continuities and discontinuities. Stuttgart 1994, pp. 13-32.
  • Leonore Siegele-Wenschkewitz , Gerda Stuchlik (ed.): University and National Socialism. History of science and science as a theme of contemporary history. Frankfurt am Main 1990.

To technical universities in the Soviet Zone / GDR

  • Bertram Triebel: The party and the university. A history of the SED at the Bergakademie Freiberg. Leipziger Universitätsverlag, Leipzig 2015, ISBN 978-3-86583-951-0 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. Albrecht, 1989, p. 144.
  2. ^ Gisela Buchheim, Rolf Sonnemann (ed.): History of the technical sciences. Springer Basel, 1990, ISBN 978-3-0348-6153-3
  3. RWTH Aachen is a university according to § 1 Paragraph (2) No. 1 of the Higher Education Act of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, see here ( Memento from June 17, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
  4. Cf. Wissenschaftsrat: Recommendations on the engineering sciences at the universities and technical colleges in the new federal states , Drs. 325/91 of July 5, 1991, p. 5 ff.
  5. Oskar Anweiler and a .: Comparison of education and upbringing in the Federal Republic of Germany and in the German Democratic Republic , Cologne 1990, ISBN 3-8046-8746-6 , p. 420 ff.
  6. Wissenschaftsrat 1991, p. 6 f .; see. Handbook of the German History of Education , Vol. 6/2, p. 215 f.
  7. Wissenschaftsrat 1991, pp. 20 ff.
  8. http://www.hof.uni-halle.de/publikation/forschungslandkarte-ostdeutschland/ Peer Pasternak, Daniel Hechler: Forschungslandkarte Ostdeutschland. Special volume the university. journal for science and education. Institute for University Research (HoF), Halle-Wittenberg, 2007.
  9. Press release of the Bavarian State Ministry for Science, Research and the Arts from March 19, 2013
  10. ^ Information from TH Köln , accessed on August 10, 2015.
  11. FHB becomes a technical university, July 22, 2015
  12. Technical University of Georg Agricola celebrates its anniversary: ​​200 years of teaching and research in Bochum, April 15, 2016
  13. Technical University of Bingen: The FH becomes the Technical University of Bingen . ( th-bingen.de [accessed on October 10, 2016]). The FH becomes the Technical University of Bingen ( Memento from October 10, 2016 in the Internet Archive )
  14. Landtag clears the way for the first technical university in the state . ( fh-luebeck.de [accessed June 15, 2018]).
  15. Appointment of the Rosenheim University of Applied Sciences as a technical university, October 4, 2018
  16. ↑ The Ulm University of Applied Sciences was renamed "Ulm University of Applied Sciences", March 1st, 2019
  17. Aschaffenburg University is now a technical university. Retrieved March 27, 2019 .
  18. ^ Information from HS OWL , accessed on April 5, 2019.