Advertising criticism

Facade advertising on a residential building in Mainz-Kastel on the Taunus Railway for the former Mainzer Rhein-Zeitung : After companies and brands have been abandoned, permanently applied and therefore difficult to remove advertising on buildings is undesirable and affects the appearance of private apartments

As advertising criticism refers to the criticism on the advertising , in particular is commercialization of all sectors of society, the privatization of public space , heating up the consumption and waste of resources raised and thus a harmful impact on lifestyles and the environment. The criticism refers to political aspects (media dependence, freedom of expression , censorship ), financial (costs) and ethical aspects (e.g. unconscious influence , loss of privacy , growth in consumption and waste ).

Commercialization and dissemination

The ubiquity of advertising in modern, commercialized societies has been criticized ; People can hardly move in public space or use media without exposing themselves to advertising. The internationally known advertising critic Kalle Lasn describes advertising as “the most widespread and poisonous among intellectual pollution”; In North America, around 3,000 advertising messages reach every single person every day, a total of around 12 billion per day and over 200,000 on television. The agenda-setting of advertising dominates the public attention economy at the expense of commercial and advertising-free areas that serve leisure and relaxation. Advertising is becoming more and more intrusive, also in the private sphere .

It is part of standard business and economic knowledge that advertising is one of the foundations of the growth-oriented , capitalist economy. For the communication scientist Manfred Knoche , advertising is a necessary elixir of life for the media industry , economy and capitalism as a whole . Besides economic functions, advertising and mass media also fulfill those of ideological production . Knoche describes 'product and brand advertising' as 'weapons' in the competition between goods manufacturers for buyers and industry advertising, for example from automobile manufacturers , as a means of representing common interests vis-à-vis other groups of suppliers, such as the railways.

According to Christopher Lasch , advertising leads to an increase in overall consumption in society; it serves "not so much to advertise products as to promote consumption as a way of life."

Appropriation of public space

Every visually perceptible place is a potential advertising medium . Cities in particular with their buildings, but also landscapes, serve as media for advertising. In addition to traditional posters, more conspicuous places are used, such as entire vehicle bodies or building facades. The ongoing normalization of intrusive advertising dulls the public's perception of their surroundings, which, according to advertising-critical activists, increases the general feeling of powerlessness towards creativity and change. This allows advertisers to increase the saturation of consumers through advertising without public resistance forming.

Public spaces are occupied by advertisements, especially those that are heavily frequented, some of which - like Piccadilly Circus or Times Square - are important for the image and identity of a city. As a result, according to Georg Franck , they are being privatized; some architects and urban planners speak of disfigurement without regard to historical structures. The architect Hans Hollein fought against advertising on his buildings.

Economic dependence of the media

Almost all mass media are advertising media, many of which are mainly advertising media and, with the exception of public service broadcasting, which is largely or entirely fee-financed, privately owned. Private media income is largely, predominantly and sometimes entirely based on advertising income, such as free newspapers or private broadcasters, newspapers and magazines up to 50 to 80 percent. But even with public broadcasting, advertising income of up to 40 percent can be said to be dependent. Therefore, critics point out that no medium that distributes advertising can be independent and the greater the advertising share, the higher the dependency. This dependency has "very specific effects on the type of media content [...] In the business press, the media are often referred to as exactly what they claim to be in their open moments: as a branch of the advertising industry". The private media are subject to increasing concentration, with ownership structures often being confused or opaque. According to critics, this development represents “an ongoing threat to democratic culture”. Five or six advertising agencies dominate the $ 400 billion global advertising industry; "Journalists have long been under pressure to design reports in such a way that they suit the advertisers or the owners," as there is a risk of losing their orders. The influence of an advertiser affects not only information about him or his products, but also the content of programs and articles, even of contributions that are not directly related to the advertiser. The media's refusal to accept advertising that is not in their interests is also criticized. An example of this is the refusal of television stations in the US and Canada to broadcast Adbusters spots.

In the private broadcasting sector, the quota basically decides on the program; in the United States, program content has been determined by companies since the 1930s, when Procter & Gamble first had a series designed as an advertising medium for a detergent brand, thus creating the soap opera genre . In an example of undisguised influence, the American television broadcaster USA Network called “unofficial appointments at the highest management level to find out what broadcast content companies wanted so that they could place their advertising orders.” TV advertisements are tailored, timed and content-based that they fit the needs of the advertising, for example the division into suitable sections.

Another important problem for advertising critics is that in the media the boundaries between advertising and the rest of the editorial content are blurring, which endangers the journalistic tasks and freedoms in the eyes of the critics. Because of these dependencies, a public policy debate about advertising and its influence on information and freedom of expression is made more difficult. Robert McChesney noted that the negative effects of promoting democracy were "excluded from the spectrum of legitimate debates".

Culture and sport

Performances, exhibitions, concerts, congresses and most other events can practically no longer do without sponsors . With the withdrawal of the public sector, art and culture are becoming increasingly dependent on the private sector. Art and culture are put in the service of sales promotion. Where sponsors take over the financing of publicly supported culture, they buy the service of the attraction. Artists are judged and paid according to the extent to which their art can be commercialized.

There is little space left outside the consumer economy in which culture and art can develop independently and pursue alternative values. For Sut Jhally , the economic drive to maximize consumption has led to the adoption of more and more advertising space in culture. The mass media have become marketing bodies with the main purpose of attracting viewers and listeners to advertising. Not only the mediated advertising, but also the main program support the consumer society. The film industry is now fully integrated through strategies such as licensing, tie-ins and product placements. An important function of many Hollywood productions today is the sale of goods, which has an impact on the feasibility of films.

Due to the scarcity of public funds, galleries, museums and orchestras vie for sponsors. Cities like New York accept sponsorships for public playgrounds. The education sector, especially schools and universities, is under heavy pressure to open up to business and its interests.

Competitive sport has become unthinkable without sponsorship and there is a mutual dependency. On the one hand, high advertising revenues can only be achieved if there is corresponding audience interest. On the other hand, poor performance by athletes leads to falling audience numbers and thus less income. Jürgen Hüther and Hans-Jörg Stiehler speak of a sports / media complex as an aggregate of media, agencies, management and sports event organizers with partly common, partly divergent, but definitely commercial interests. Broadcasting rights , sponsorship and merchandising of professional sports associations and clubs outperform the sales of admission tickets. The dependence on advertising revenue has changed the sport; Trend sports were included in the Olympic Games, competition distances and rules changed, sports stadiums were named after corporations and a star cult was built around athletes. According to Jürgen Hüther and Hans-Jörg Stiehler, “adapting to the logic of the media” jeopardizes sporting values such as equal opportunities and fairness and makes it possible for athletes to be overwhelmed by public pressure, which could lead to manipulation such as doping .

Psychological influence

The most important element of advertising is not information, but suggestion . Advertising creates instincts ( sex drive , herd instinct ), desires (happiness, health, fitness, appearance, self-esteem , reputation, belonging, social rank , establishing identity , adventure, distraction, reward), fears (illness, weaknesses, loneliness, deficiency, security ), Prejudice or convenience. The attractiveness of celebrities and other advertising figures is exploited, and humor is used in a targeted manner as well as associations filled with emotions. These are factors of self-esteem. According to Georg Franck , advertising takes on the role of “life counseling in matters of attractiveness”, which Christopher Lasch understands as an expression of a “culture of narcissism ”. Since advertising, according to the cultural geographer Ray Hudson, is "essentially based on psychological theories of how to create subjects", it has moved away from the simple conception of the material properties of the object sold and is filled with "symbolic qualities and culturally-laden meanings" even with banal everyday goods, to develop “mass-produced ideas of individuality”.

Before an advertising campaign can take place, market research must know and describe the target group in order to be able to plan and implement the advertising campaign precisely and to achieve the best possible results. A whole range of sciences are directly concerned with advertising and marketing and are used to improve their effects. Robert McChesney describes it as "the greatest concerted attempt at psychological manipulation in human history". Target groups, psychologists and cultural anthropologists are inevitably part of market research. Large amounts of personal data, especially on shopping habits, are collected, processed and analyzed electronically with the help of credit cards, bonus cards and, last but not least, via the recorded Internet behavior of consumers. With increasing precision, this work provides a picture of the behavior, wishes and weaknesses of certain sections of the population, which can thus be advertised in a more targeted and effective manner.

Socio-cultural impact, sexism, discrimination, stereotypes

Advertising critics see advertising as the central source of meaning in Western culture. Sut Jhally and James Twitchell go so far as to call advertising a kind of religion and that advertising has even replaced religion as a key institution. The effects are unclear; Kalle Lasn called "corporate advertising ... the greatest single psychological experiment" in history and related it to mind-control experiments such as MKULTRA , which were carried out in the United States in the post-war period and which had sometimes resulted in severe psychological damage. Hans Jürgen Richter pointed out the danger that “people can be made to behave in any conceivable way” if it is possible to “generate the corresponding social field”, which is why it depends on which values, behavior patterns and value assignments advertising propagates. Advertising critics contend that "our most precious intangible property, namely confidence in the existence of meaningful purposes of human activity and respect for human integrity ," would be destroyed. Advertising makes use of the language and means of pop culture , protest movements and even subversive criticism, and does not shy away from scandals and breaking taboos. The "suggestive influencing of information fields in public" is therefore one of the central tasks of a company.

In advertising, stereotypical roles, especially gender-specific ones, are often depicted and existing clichés are consolidated. Hence, critics argue that advertising promotes sexism , racism and prejudice against old people. Activities or characteristics are portrayed as typically female or male, people are reduced to their sexuality or their body. A large part of the advertising promotes products that have to do with the appearance of people (in the past mostly women). The media exert great pressure on girls and women in particular to conform to a given ideal of beauty , which can lead to eating disorders, self-harm and the urge to undergo cosmetic surgery. In 2008 the EU Parliament approved a motion for a resolution that advertising should not be discriminatory or degrading. Raising public awareness of sexist or degrading advertising is currently almost exclusively focused on women.

The advertising is aimed in particular at young people and children, who are thus increasingly reduced to their consumer status. The market for children and young people is the “trailblazer for ad creep ” because resistance to advertising is weakest there. On the one hand, children and young people are interesting for the economy because of their purchasing power, on the other hand because of their influence on their parents' purchasing behavior. Because they are easier to influence, children and young people are a particularly sought-after target group for the advertising industry . Manufacturers of toys , sweets , ice cream , breakfast foods and sporting goods are not the only ones who prefer to direct their advertising to them. Advertising for adult products is also aimed at young consumers and prefers media as an advertising medium with which the younger ones can be reached. For example, cigarettes are “used as a fashion element” to appeal to young people. The children's cartoon Foodfight features thousands of grocery products and brand icons from the supermarket. Advertising brands and characters become heroes in children's books, and many of those books have " snack meals in leading roles." Children create brand expectations and are already used to being addressed as consumers. The child's loyalty translates into brand loyalty when they grow up.

Opposition and actions against advertising

Billboard in Lund , Sweden : One Night Stand? (2005)

Consumer protection associations, environmental groups, anti-globalization groups , consumer critics , sociologists, media critics , academics and many other people and groups deal with the negative effects of advertising. They complain about the total occupation of public space, of surfaces, ether, media and schools and the almost non-stop sprinkling of the senses with advertising messages. In the opinion of the critics, the harmfulness of advertising is not sufficiently recognized, especially in the media and political culture. Awareness of the problematic sides of advertising is urgently needed, according to activists, in order to overcome “the pervasive alienation from all real human needs” with which advertising corrodes society. Resistance to it is made more difficult by the fact that it belongs to the conditions of monopoly competition within capitalism ( Arthur Cecil Pigou ) - one must therefore oppose the logic of this economic system.

Robinson lists , spam filters , TV zapping , ad blockers and letterbox imprints “ no advertising please ” express the need for protection from excessive advertising . More and more courts are dealing with intrusive advertising.

Many local authorities and some metropolises such as Moscow have banned excessively large billboards in order to protect the cityscape or landscape; the Scenic America Initiative estimates the number of such local authorities in the United States to be at least 1,500. All billboards have been removed in the U.S. states of Vermont (1970s), Hawaii (1920s), Maine (1970s / early 1980s), and Alaska (1998 referendum). In São Paulo , Brazil, the downsizing or removal of all billboards, as well as most other forms of advertising in the city, was ordered in the 2000s.

In many countries grassroots movements against certain types of advertising have become established. This movement is particularly pronounced in France (“antipub”), where media theorist Jean Baudrillard , for example, critically dealt with advertising. Internationally, the globalization critic Naomi Klein and the linguist Noam Chomsky have emerged. In her book No Logo, Klein criticizes the greed for branded goods generated by corporations . Sometimes their efforts overlap with actions against the general commercialization of all areas of life or brand fetishism . Individual groups among environmentalists and opponents of globalization , especially Adbusters , have committed themselves to the goal of educating people about advertising. With actions such as culture jamming they make themselves heard, often with advertising that turns them into the opposite or ridiculous. This includes, for example, the communication guerrilla . In the United States, Canada, France and other countries there are numerous groups that oppose advertising locally, such as the Billboard Liberation Front Creative Group in San Francisco .

Protection of children and young people

Advertising specially tailored to children has been used since the 1950s. In this, the advertisers tried, for example, to specifically activate the influence of children, known as Pester Power , on their parents' purchasing behavior.

The forms of advertising, sometimes very aggressively aimed at children and young people, led in many countries to a desire for legal restrictions from the late 1960s. In 1980, advertising for children under 13 was banned in the Canadian province of Québec . Following a lawsuit by a toy company, the court upheld the Quebec Consumer Protection Act's compliance with the Canadian Constitution, stating that advertising was "manipulative per se". Sweden passed a law in 1991 banning radio and TV advertising aimed at children under the age of twelve. Any kind of advertising is prohibited during the children's program. This also applies to Denmark, Austria and Flemish Belgium. In Greece, advertising for children's products is prohibited from 7 a.m. to 10 p.m. and in Norway, advertising for children up to the age of twelve is generally prohibited. In the USA, an advertising ban failed because the corporations invoked the right to freedom of expression . In Spain, an advertising ban failed because it was undemocratic.

In some countries, organizations have emerged to devote themselves to media literacy , especially for children, to provide insight into how the media and advertising work (see media criticism ). Initiatives to protect children from harmful advertising effects have also been launched and paid for by companies. In the United States, this includes The Advertising Educational Foundation, which was founded in 1983 with support from advertising agencies, corporations and media companies. According to his own account, it is “the supplier and distributor of educational material to enrich the understanding of advertising and its role in culture, society and economy” and is supported by numerous large companies. Canadian companies formed Concerned Children's Advertisers (CCA) with around 50 private broadcasters in 1990 , “to instill confidence in advertising by actively demonstrating our commitment, concern, responsibility and respect for children.” CCA has been a model for similar initiatives in other countries , for example Media smart in Great Britain with branches in Germany, France, the Netherlands and Sweden. New Zealand has a similar organization called Willie Munchright . These initiatives are controversial among advertising critics because they present the actors responsible for the problems as part of the solution.

Advertising and fundamental rights: expression of freedom of expression or invasion of privacy

Proponents of advertising try to legitimize this by referring to the right to freedom of expression that applies in liberal democracies , which is why advertising criticism or attempts at restriction are referred to as an attack on fundamental rights and are brought to court in the United States in particular. Such legally contested restrictions were enforced, for example, in tobacco and alcohol advertising against strong opposition. Robert McChesney sees the power of the advertising companies as a threat to democracy and therefore the possibility of the population to exercise their own rights in this imbalance threatened.

Advertising critics point out that advertising intrudes into people's privacy and specifically collects and uses customer data, which is also a fundamental right.

literature

Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas. Monthly Review Press, New York 2008, ISBN 978-1-58367-161-0 .
Georg Franck: Economy of Attention. A blueprint. Carl Hanser, 1998, ISBN 3-446-19348-0 .
Hans Jürgen Richter: Introduction to Image Marketing. Field theoretical research. Kohlhammer (Urban TB), Stuttgart 1977.
Christopher Lasch: The Age of Narcissism. Hoffmann and Campe, Hamburg 1995.

Individual evidence

^ Georg Franck: Economy of Attention. A blueprint. (Blurb.)
^ Kalle Lasn in: Culture Jam: The Uncooling of America, William Morrow & Company. 1999, ISBN 0-688-15656-8 .
↑ Ulrich Eicke in: The advertising avalanche. Attack on our consciousness. Munich 1991.
^ ^A ^b Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media. Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas , p. 265.
↑ Manfred Knoche: Advertising - a necessary "elixir of life" for capitalism: On the criticism of the political economy of advertising. In: Wolfgang Seufert, Jörg Müller-Lietzkow (Hrsg.): Theory and practice of advertising in the mass media. Nomos, Baden-Baden 2005, pp. 239-255.
^ Christopher Lasch: The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations. Norton, New York, ISBN 978-0-393-30738-2 .
↑ Our mission. In: AntiAdvertisingAgency.com (English).
^ Georg Franck: Economy of Attention. A blueprint. Lecture given at the Philosophicum Lech 2002.
↑ Hans Haider: Wrong illuminated signs from the bridge. In: Wiener Zeitung , February 26, 2010.
^ Gabriele Siegert, Dieter Brecheis: Advertising in the media and information society. Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2005, ISBN 3-531-13893-6 .
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 256.
^ ^A ^b Henry A. Giroux, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada, in the foreword to Sut Jhally: The Spectacle of Accumulation.
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 43.
↑ James H. Ewert: Adbusters' Ads Busted. In: In These Times , April 4, 2008.
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 271.
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , pp. 270, 272.
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , pp. 235, 237.
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 276.
↑ Sut Jhally: Advertising at the edge of the apocalypse ; Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , pp. 269, 270.
↑ Stephen Mularz: The Negative Effects of Advertising. ( Memento of March 18, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF, English).
↑ ^a ^b Sut Jhally in: Stay Free No. 16, On Advertising, 1999.
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 213.
↑ Jürgen Hüther, Hans-Jörg Stiehler: Merz. Media and Education magazine. Issue 6/2006: merz Science - Sport and Media.
^ Georg Franck: Economy of Attention. A draft ; Christopher Lasch: The Age of Narcissism.
^ Ray Hudson: Cultural political economy meets global production networks: a productive meeting? In: Journal of Economic Geography. Vol. 8, 2008, No. 3, pp. 421-440, doi : 10.1093 / jeg / lbn005 .
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 277.
^ Kalle Lasn: Culture Jamming.
^ Hans Jürgen Richter: Introduction to Image Marketing. Field theoretical research. In: abandonment of advertising. 1977, p. 12.
^ Paul Baran, Paul Sweezy: Monopoly Capital. In: Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas. 1964, p. 52.
^ Kalle Lasn 2001.
^ Hans Jürgen Richter: Introduction to Image Marketing. Field theoretical research. In: abandonment of advertising. 1977, p. 88 f.
↑ See, for example, Sexism and Racism in Advertising. In: Reed College Digital Collections (English); James S. Hirsch: Offensive Advertising - Racist, Sexist Or Ageist - Is an American Tradition. In: Associated Press News Archive , October 19, 1995 (English).
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 269.
^ Ulrich and Wolfram Eicke: Media children. The right way to deal with diversity. Knesebeck, Munich 1994, ISBN 3-926901-67-5 .
^ Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health. Department of Health. In: Gov.uk , March 11, 1998.
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media .
↑ Ban Advertising Aimed At Children Under 13. ( Memento November 16, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) In: OntarioNDP.com (English).
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas. P. 281.
^ Andrew Downie: Prospects and Problems in Our Urban Centers: São Paulo Sells Itself. In: Time , February 8, 2008 (English).
^ Communities Prohibiting Billboard Construction. ( Memento from July 25, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) at Scenic.org (English).
↑ "The Entschriftung of public space" was held from 6 to 20 June 2005 in Vienna Neubaugasse. The installation, conceived and executed by Christoph Steinbrenner and Rainer Dempf, triggered a worldwide media response.
^ Consumer Protection Act, RSQ, c. P-40.1, p. 248 f. and Application Guide for Sections 248 and 249 of the Québec Consumer Protection Act (Advertising Intended for Children Under 13 Years of Age) .
↑ Supreme Court of Canada: Irwin Toy Ltd. v. Quebec (Attorney General), [1989] 1 SCR 927 ( Memento February 17, 2011 on the Internet Archive ) (English). Retrieved February 26, 2010.
^ Corinna Hawkes: Marketing Food to Children: The Global Regulatory Environment (PDF; 869 kB). World Health Organization, Geneva 2004.
↑ Aef.com (English).
↑ Now under the name Companies Committed to Kids', CCK-EEE.ca (English).
↑ Jerry Kirkpatrick: The Ethics of Advertising Taxation. ( Memento of October 8, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF, English). First published in Joel R. Evans, Barry Berman, Benny Barak (Eds.): Proceedings of the 1995 Research Conference on Ethics and Social Responsiblity in Marketing. Hofstra University School of Business, Hempstead, NY 1995, pp. 117-122.
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas. Pp. 132, 249.
^ Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , pp. 252, 249, 254, 256.

[1] Georg Franck: Economy of Attention. A blueprint. (Blurb.)

[2] Kalle Lasn in: Culture Jam: The Uncooling of America, William Morrow & Company. 1999, ISBN 0-688-15656-8 .

[3] Ulrich Eicke in: The advertising avalanche. Attack on our consciousness. Munich 1991.

[McChesney_265-4] A ^b Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media. Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas , p. 265.

[5] Manfred Knoche: Advertising - a necessary "elixir of life" for capitalism: On the criticism of the political economy of advertising. In: Wolfgang Seufert, Jörg Müller-Lietzkow (Hrsg.): Theory and practice of advertising in the mass media. Nomos, Baden-Baden 2005, pp. 239-255.

[6] Christopher Lasch: The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations. Norton, New York, ISBN 978-0-393-30738-2 .

[7] Our mission. In: AntiAdvertisingAgency.com (English).

[8] Georg Franck: Economy of Attention. A blueprint. Lecture given at the Philosophicum Lech 2002.

[9] Hans Haider: Wrong illuminated signs from the bridge. In: Wiener Zeitung , February 26, 2010.

[10] Gabriele Siegert, Dieter Brecheis: Advertising in the media and information society. Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2005, ISBN 3-531-13893-6 .

[11] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 256.

[giroux-12] A ^b Henry A. Giroux, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada, in the foreword to Sut Jhally: The Spectacle of Accumulation.

[13] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 43.

[14] James H. Ewert: Adbusters' Ads Busted. In: In These Times , April 4, 2008.

[15] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 271.

[16] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , pp. 270, 272.

[17] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , pp. 235, 237.

[18] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 276.

[19] Sut Jhally: Advertising at the edge of the apocalypse ; Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , pp. 269, 270.

[20] Stephen Mularz: The Negative Effects of Advertising. ( Memento of March 18, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF, English).

[jhally-21] Sut Jhally in: Stay Free No. 16, On Advertising, 1999.

[22] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 213.

[merz-23] Jürgen Hüther, Hans-Jörg Stiehler: Merz. Media and Education magazine. Issue 6/2006: merz Science - Sport and Media.

[24] Georg Franck: Economy of Attention. A draft ; Christopher Lasch: The Age of Narcissism.

[25] Ray Hudson: Cultural political economy meets global production networks: a productive meeting? In: Journal of Economic Geography. Vol. 8, 2008, No. 3, pp. 421-440, doi : 10.1093 / jeg / lbn005 .

[chesney-277-26] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 277.

[27] Kalle Lasn: Culture Jamming.

[28] Hans Jürgen Richter: Introduction to Image Marketing. Field theoretical research. In: abandonment of advertising. 1977, p. 12.

[29] Paul Baran, Paul Sweezy: Monopoly Capital. In: Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas. 1964, p. 52.

[30] Kalle Lasn 2001.

[31] Hans Jürgen Richter: Introduction to Image Marketing. Field theoretical research. In: abandonment of advertising. 1977, p. 88 f.

[32] See, for example, Sexism and Racism in Advertising. In: Reed College Digital Collections (English); James S. Hirsch: Offensive Advertising - Racist, Sexist Or Ageist - Is an American Tradition. In: Associated Press News Archive , October 19, 1995 (English).

[33] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , p. 269.

[34] Ulrich and Wolfram Eicke: Media children. The right way to deal with diversity. Knesebeck, Munich 1994, ISBN 3-926901-67-5 .

[35] Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health. Department of Health. In: Gov.uk , March 11, 1998.

[mcchesney-36] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media .

[37] Ban Advertising Aimed At Children Under 13. ( Memento November 16, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) In: OntarioNDP.com (English).

[38] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas. P. 281.

[39] Andrew Downie: Prospects and Problems in Our Urban Centers: São Paulo Sells Itself. In: Time , February 8, 2008 (English).

[40] Communities Prohibiting Billboard Construction. ( Memento from July 25, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) at Scenic.org (English).

[41] "The Entschriftung of public space" was held from 6 to 20 June 2005 in Vienna Neubaugasse. The installation, conceived and executed by Christoph Steinbrenner and Rainer Dempf, triggered a worldwide media response.

[42] Consumer Protection Act, RSQ, c. P-40.1, p. 248 f. and Application Guide for Sections 248 and 249 of the Québec Consumer Protection Act (Advertising Intended for Children Under 13 Years of Age) .

[43] Supreme Court of Canada: Irwin Toy Ltd. v. Quebec (Attorney General), [1989] 1 SCR 927 ( Memento February 17, 2011 on the Internet Archive ) (English). Retrieved February 26, 2010.

[44] Corinna Hawkes: Marketing Food to Children: The Global Regulatory Environment (PDF; 869 kB). World Health Organization, Geneva 2004.

[45] Aef.com (English).

[46] Now under the name Companies Committed to Kids', CCK-EEE.ca (English).

[47] Jerry Kirkpatrick: The Ethics of Advertising Taxation. ( Memento of October 8, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF, English). First published in Joel R. Evans, Barry Berman, Benny Barak (Eds.): Proceedings of the 1995 Research Conference on Ethics and Social Responsiblity in Marketing. Hofstra University School of Business, Hempstead, NY 1995, pp. 117-122.

[48] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas. Pp. 132, 249.

[49] Robert W. McChesney: The Political Economy of Media , pp. 252, 249, 254, 256.