Babylonian calendar

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The Babylonian calendar was a lunisolar calendar with several normal years of 12 months, to which a further month was added in leap years . The normal year was about 11 days shorter than a year in a solar calendar . The added leap months were 29 or 30 days in length.

Babylonian calendar

Astronomical basics

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A Babylonian month began with the new light , the first visibility of the narrow crescent moon after the new moon . The length of the period between the new moon and the new light depends , among other things, on the geographical location of the observation site. In southern latitudes of the northern hemisphere, the duration of the invisibility of the moon is shorter than in northern latitudes, which leads to longer observation phases of the moon in southern areas compared to northern regions. The omens and prophecies related to this theoretical lunar calendar model. Compared to the real administrative calendar, this resulted in a maximum monthly deviation of one day. The differences determined in this way were added and, in combination with star rising, determined the later point in time of a leap month .

The celestial equator (English celestial equator ) is to ≈ 23.5 ° to the plane of the ecliptic inclined. The intersections are the equinoxes

The times of observation were also dependent on various other influences: the flatter the ecliptic , the earlier the moon reaches the minimum height and becomes invisible; the higher the ecliptic, the later the time of invisibility. Another factor inclined to the ecliptic comes lunar orbit added. The moon can move 5.3 degrees above or below the ecliptic. The points of intersection of the lunar and sun orbits move in the opposite direction to the moon's own motion.

These conditions are also effective in Babylonia. The highest ecliptic values ​​are reached with about 83.7 ° in the autumn equinox , the lowest with about 36.3 ° in the spring equinox . The mean values ​​of around 60 ° fall between January and July . In Babylonia, the shortest period of invisibility of around 16 hours falls between the end of September and the end of October ; the longest period of around 42 hours is between mid- March and mid- April .

Period of invisibility of the moon between new moon and new light in the Babylon region
January February March April May June July August September October November December
29 hours 33 hours 39 hours 41 hours 37 hours 33 hours 29 hours 25 hours 21 hours 16 hours 21 hours 25 hours

Moon observations

Moon data that is based on observation can lead to a short-term error rate of one day in poor visibility or weather-related invisibility. If a Babylonian astronomer was faced with this problem due to bad weather, he only had the option of estimating or looking at the moon tables. The synodic period is also subject to fluctuations in time; compared to the mean up to about 6.5 hours. This fact leads to smaller deviations within the lunar cycles .

A wrong assessment corrected itself in the following months and was corrected with the next new light recordings. The update of the error was not possible from a statistical point of view and therefore had no influence on the long-term entries. Comparisons of Babylonian data with the astronomical values ​​resulted in an agreement rate of 85%. This value coincides with the reliability rate of the old light sightings in Egypt . Deliberate falsifications of calendar moon observations occurred in Babylonia when the moon phases were linked to negative omen laws.

Month names

The Babylonian month names, which come from the ancient Babylonian period (2000–1600 BC), were derived from the older calendar system from Nippur .

Month names in different epochs and regions
Month no. Babylonian calendar Nippur calendar Ur-III calendar Lagaš calendar
1 Nisannu (bar) Bara-zag-gar-ra Maš-du-ku Gan-maš
2 Ajaru (gu 4 ) Ezen-gu 4 -si-su Šeš-da-ku Gu 4 -du-bi-sar-sar
3 Simanu (sig 4 ) Sig 4 -ga U 5 -bi-ku Ezen- d Li 9 -si 4
4th Du'uzu (šu) Šu-numun Ki-sig- d Nin-a-zu Šu-numun
5 Abu (izi) NE-NE-gar-ra Ezen- d Nin-a-zu Munu x - (DIM 4 ) -cu
6th Ululu (kin) Child- d Inanna A-ki-ti Ezen d Dumu-zi
7th Tašritu (du 6 ) You 6 -ku Ezen- d Sul-gi Ezen- d Sul-gi
8th Araḫsamna (apin) Apin-du 8 -a Šu-eš-ša Ezen- d Ba-ba 6
9 Kislimu (gan) Gan-gan-e Ezen-maḫ Mu-šu-you 7
10 Tebetu (from) Ab-e Ezen-an-na Amar-aa-si
11 Sabatu (ziz) Ziz-a Ezen-me-ki-gal Še-gur 10 -ku 5
12 Addaru (ša) Še-gur 10 -ku 5 Še-gur 10 -ku 5 E-il-la
S. Addaru II (DIR, dirig)
Ululu II (KIN-2-KAM, 2-KAM)

Lunar month days

Moon phases

The recording of the phases of the moon has been documented since the Ur-III period, which also indicates that the original Babylonian calendar was based on the phases of the moon before its reform. In the later Babylonian work of creation Enûma elîsch , the phases of the moon up to the full moon are described in more detail:

“At the beginning of the month, when you ( Nannara ) begin to shine over the lands, you should shine on your horns to indicate the (first) six days. On the seventh day (show) half of the crown. When the moon is full, stand in opposition to the sun: that's half the month. When the sun has caught up with you again on the horizon, shrink your crown and start to take it off. "

- Enûma elîsch, text 3, verses 15-20.
Moon phases

The names of the lunar month days were based on the respective festivals. There were only four fixed names that related to the different phases of the moon:

  • Archu (arḫu): First day, new light .
  • Sebutu (sebutu): Seventh day, half moon (first quarter of the waxing moon, phase 3).
  • Shapattu (šapattu): 15th day, full moon (second quarter of the waxing moon, phase 5).
  • u 4 -na-a (" going to bed"), Akkadian bubbuli ("disappearance"): 29th day, new moon (phase 1).

Leap years

Calendar stars

The evaluation of several astronomical texts shows that, among other things, so-called calendar stars also determine the respective leap years. A prominent calendar star , for example, was the Sirius , which in the Sumerian language as KAK.SI.SÁ (arrow) and in the Akkadian language mostly as “šu-ku-du” ((pipe) arrow) , but also as “šil -ta-ḫu “ (arrow) . The time of its heliacal rise in the month of Du'uzu determined the normal year, the time of its heliacal rise in the month of Abu automatically determined the necessary leap year with the month of Addaru II.

The king proclaimed the leap month by decree . However, the leap month had no lengthening effect in the economic field. In leap years, the due dates had to be brought forward by a month . Since the sexagesimal system used did not have a seven-day week , “30 days” formed the monthly calculation variable. Among other Babylonian sources is the MUL.APIN - cuneiform texts : a time out

"[DIŠ-ina] iti ZÍZ UD 15 KAM mul KAK.SI.SÁ ina li-la-a-ti IGI MU BI DIR -at ..."

"[If] the arrow star (Sirius) rises acronyms on the evening of the 15th Sabatu , this year is a leap year (Addaru II)."

- Johannes Koch

Another calendar star was the open star cluster of the Pleiades , referred to in the Sumerian language as MUL.MUL (The Stars) and in the Akkadian language as "zap-pu" ((star) cluster) . The basis of the beginning of the New Year was formed by the heliacal rise of MUL.MUL on the 1st Ajjaru and the resulting recalculation of the start date of the new light moon ( d sin ina IGI ) on the 1st Nisannu . In the leap year MUL.MUL was postponed to the 1st Simanu .

Leap year times

In the course of advancing knowledge and insights into astronomical processes, attempts were made to determine and fix the calendar according to a fixed scheme from Nabopolassar (625–605 BC) . For a short time, an 8-year switching cycle prevailed, then - finally - the 19-year switching cycle , which has regulated the calendar since the Seleucid era when using an Addaru II or a Ululu II (mid-year).

The apparent brightness of the new moon is about as great as that of Venus . In principle, the astronomical point in time of the new moon can not be observed in the night sky from Earth , since it is always below the horizon there. On the day side, too, it is invisible to the naked eye because the ash-gray shadow side is outshone by the scattered light of the sun in the earth's atmosphere during the day . However, it is possible to perceive the new light if the moon set about 25 to 30 minutes after sunset and the astronomical new moon a few hours earlier. Normally the faint crescent moon can only be seen on the day after the new moon at dusk.

The earliest beginning of the New Year is controversially discussed in modern research, as there are no reliable findings as to whether the beginning of autumn or spring marked the start of the new year. With corresponding records of the heliacal rising, there are indications in the compilation Astrolab B (13th century BC) that originally, similar to the Jewish calendar, the agricultural New Year began in September. The statement of the Assyrian King Asarhaddon : The heads of the enemies fall like apples in the month of Simanu refers to the months of June / July and means the rotten apples that fall from the tree . Also noteworthy is the Old Babylonian text BM 17175 + 17284 (= 92-7-9.291 + 400), according to which the Babylonian calendar year at that time apparently began not with the month of Nisannu, but with the preceding month of Adaru .

Classifications

At the beginning of the year in spring, this moon and the full moon were always near the spring equinox . A new calendar day always began at dusk in the Babylonian calendar and was valid until dusk of the next day. The table information represents the daily data; the new light as the starting sign for the new month could be seen on the previous evening.

Switching cycle

For the 19-year switching cycle, it is necessary to know the length of an astronomical year . Exact records of how the astronomical year was determined are not yet available. It is considered likely that the summer solstices were initially calculated systematically. Based on this, the equinoxes were later determined at regular intervals.

The standardized Babylonian lunar calendar, which was adapted to a nineteen-year cycle, was valid at the earliest since the reign of Darius I. However, there is no direct evidence for the introduction. In the year 498 BC Chr. Of Dareios I, the oldest evidence dates back to the fact that a second month of Ululu was used according to the switching rule. A leap year with the month Adar II is known from the first two years of Darius I's reign ; However, this does not prove that leap months are regular. The next clear evidence of this switching rule comes from the 41st year of the reign of Artaxerxes I (425/424 BC). The 1st Ululu began in 424 BC. On September 10th, the previous 1st Nisannu on April 16th.

In years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14 and 19, the month Addaru II was inserted; in the 17th year, however, as the thirteenth month of Ululu II. According to ancient sources, the Greek astronomers Meton and Euktemon are associated with the system of the standardized Babylonian lunar calendar (see Meton cycle ). The time of the new year was determined by the spring equinox . Due to the scheduled switching, there was only a fluctuation range of 27 days for the time of the calendar New Year (22/23  March to 18/19  April ); the average was 14 days (April 4th / 5th).

Leap years in the Babylonian lunar calendar in different epochs
Cycle year Dating Leap month Beginning of the leap month Beginning of the next nisannu Cycle year
Leap years without a fixed switching cycle
686 to 685 BC Chr. Ululu II August 26, 686 BC Chr. March 20, 685 BC Chr.
684 to 683 BC Chr. Ululu II September 2, 684 BC Chr. March 29, 683 BC Chr.
682 to 681 BC Chr. Addaru II March 6, 681 BC Chr. April 5, 681 BC Chr.
651 to 650 BC Chr. Ululu II August 29, 651 BC Chr. March 23, 650 BC Chr.
600 to 599 BC Chr. Ululu II September 4, 600 BC Chr. March 30, 599 BC Chr.
563 to 562 BC Chr. Addaru II March 11, 562 BC Chr. April 10, 562 BC Chr.
Leap years with switching cycle
19th 425 to 424 BC Chr. Addaru II March 18, 424 BC Chr. April 16, 424 BC Chr. 1
3 403 to 402 BC Chr. Addaru II March 14, 402 BC Chr. April 13, 402 BC Chr. 4th
8th 398 to 397 BC Chr. Addaru II March 19, 397 BC Chr. April 18, 397 BC Chr. 9
11 395 to 394 BC Chr. Addaru II March 17, 394 BC Chr. April 15, 394 BC Chr. 12
14th 392 to 391 BC Chr. Addaru II March 14, 391 BC Chr. April 13, 391 BC Chr. 15th
17th 370 to 369 BC Chr. Ululu II September 15, 370 BC Chr. April 9, 369 BC Chr. 18th
19th 368 to 367 BC Chr. Addaru II March 18, 367 BC Chr. April 16, 367 BC Chr. 15th
3 365 to 364 BC Chr. Addaru II March 15, 364 BC Chr. April 14, 364 BC Chr. 4th
6th 362 to 361 BC Chr. Addaru II March 12, 361 BC Chr. April 11, 361 BC Chr. 7th
8th 360 to 359 BC Chr. Addaru II March 20, 359 BC Chr. April 18, 359 BC Chr. 9
3 346 to 345 BC Chr. Addaru II March 15, 345 BC Chr. April 14, 345 BC Chr. 4th
6th 343 to 342 BC Chr. Addaru II March 12, 342 BC Chr. April 11, 342 BC Chr. 7th

See also

literature

Web links

Remarks

  1. ↑ Rolf Krauss: Sothis and moon data: Studies on the astronomical and technical chronology of ancient Egypt. Gerstenberg, Hildesheim 1985, ISBN 3-8067-8086-X , p. 23.
  2. ↑ Johannes Koch: Once and for all: Ancient Mesopotamia did not have a 364 day year . NABU. 1998. 4 (December), p. 121 (112), here online (PDF; 159 kB)
  3. ^ Otto Neugebauer: A history of ancient mathematical astronomy. Pp. 354-355.
  4. ↑ a b c d e f Date information in the Gregorian calendar : in the Julian calendar system , 5 days are to be added to the Gregorian date. The date is based on NASA information ( Memento from November 8, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) taking into account the T-Delta. For Babylonia, the time zone surcharge of 3 hours must be taken into account for Universal Time (UT); according to Jean Meeus : Astronomical Algorithms - Applications for Ephemeris Tool 4,5 - , Barth, Leipzig 2000 for: Ephemeris Tool 4,5 according to Jean Meeus, conversion program, 2001 .
  5. ↑ a b c Dating in the Gregorian calendar taking into account the cross-day system of the Babylonian calendar.
  6. ↑ Hermann Hunger: Calendar . P. 298.
  7. ↑ a b switching cycle start later than I. Darius .
  8. ↑ a b c d e f g h Date information in the Gregorian calendar : in the Julian calendar system , 7 days are to be added to the Gregorian date. The date is based on NASA information ( Memento from November 8, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) taking into account the T-Delta. For Babylonia, the time zone surcharge of 3 hours must be taken into account for Universal Time (UT); according to Jean Meeus : Astronomical Algorithms - Applications for Ephemeris Tool 4,5 - , Barth, Leipzig 2000 for: Ephemeris Tool 4,5 according to Jean Meeus, conversion program, 2001 .
  9. ↑ a b c d Date information in the Gregorian calendar : in the Julian calendar system , 6 days are to be added to the Gregorian date. The date is based on NASA information ( memento from March 23, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) taking into account the T-Delta. For Babylonia, the time zone surcharge of 3 hours must be taken into account for Universal Time (UT); according to Jean Meeus : Astronomical Algorithms - Applications for Ephemeris Tool 4,5 - , Barth, Leipzig 2000 for: Ephemeris Tool 4,5 according to Jean Meeus, conversion program, 2001 .
  10. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Date information in the Gregorian calendar : in the Julian calendar system , 4 days must be added to the Gregorian date. The date is based on the NASA information ( Memento from November 21, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) taking into account the T-Delta. For Babylonia, the time zone surcharge of 3 hours must be taken into account for Universal Time (UT); according to Jean Meeus : Astronomical Algorithms - Applications for Ephemeris Tool 4,5 - , Barth, Leipzig 2000 for: Ephemeris Tool 4,5 according to Jean Meeus, conversion program, 2001 .