Coastal pine
| Coastal pine | ||||||||||||
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Lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta subsp. Contorta ) |
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| Scientific name | ||||||||||||
| Pinus contorta | ||||||||||||
| Dougl. ex Loud. |
The lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta ), and Murray pine or lodgepole pine called, is a plant from the genus of pine trees ( Pinus ) within the family of the Pinaceae (Pinaceae). This two-needle species is very rich in shape and inhabits a large area in western North America . Their natural range is the largest of all North American pine species. In addition to the Banks pine ( Pinus banksiana ), it is the only species of pine found in the boreal coniferous forests of North America.
Due to the wealth of shapes, it is divided into three subspecies and two varieties . The maximum age is given as 400 years. It was given the name rotary pine because the branches are often rotated around their own axis. It is a pioneer plant that needs light, but is otherwise very undemanding when it comes to soil, water and climate conditions.
The coastal pine has been the provincial tree of the Canadian province of Alberta since May 30, 1984 . Especially in Europe it is grown for forestry purposes.
description
In the following the species is described in general, for the differences between the individual subtaxa see below .
Habitus
The coastal pine grows as an evergreen shrub or tree , depending on the subspecies and variety . The shrub form is usually crooked and 1 to 3 meters high. The straight, slim and narrow-crowned tree shape reaches heights of growth of 40 to 50 meters and chest height diameters of 60 to 80 centimeters, rarely up to 2 meters. It is often branched to the ground in the open. The crown is rounded and the top is flattened. In dense stands, the trees have long, knot-free trunks and a slender, conical crown. Especially in some populations in British Columbia often occurs in the formation of crotches . The elastic branches are upright or overhanging and are difficult to break off. Each long shoot often forms two branch whorls per vegetation period. The branches are very dense and are loosely covered with needled short shoots . Depending on the subspecies forming seedlings three (or six cotyledons cotyledons off).
Buds and needles
The spindle- to egg-shaped winter buds are red-brown in color and between 20 and 30 mm long. They are sharply pointed, somewhat twisted and very resinous. They begin to sprout in early April, with annual growth being completed by early July. The dark to yellow-green and usually shiny needles are pointed and 4 to 8 centimeters long and 0.9 to 2 millimeters wide. The edge of the needle is slightly to clearly serrated. The needles are in pairs on short shoots and are rotated around their longitudinal axis. In Alberta , specimens with one to five needles per short shoot occur at altitudes of over 2000 meters. A population with a high proportion of three-needle short shoots is known from Yukon . There are numerous stomata lines on each needle side. Resin channels are not formed on all needles. Most of the time, however, a needle has two, less often three and in exceptional cases up to seven resin channels. The average age of the needles is four to six, and a maximum of 13 years.
Flowers, cones and seeds
The coastal pine is single-sexed ( monoecious ) and becomes manable at five to ten years . The flower systems are already formed in the previous year. Due to the strongly varying climate in the distribution area, the main flowering time is between mid-May and mid-July.
The yellowish to yellow-orange male cones are cylindrical with a length of 8 and 14 millimeters and are densely heaped at the base of annual long shoots in the lower crown area. The purple-red female cones are elongated-egg-shaped with a length of 10 and 12 millimeters and stand individually at the tips of long shoots in the upper crown area. The average size of the pollen is 42.5 µm.
The short-stalked, conical to egg-shaped cones are 2 to 6 inches long and 2 to 3 inches wide. Since the stalk curves after fertilization and the growth of the cone scales is promoted on the light side, the cones are usually asymmetrically shaped. The dark red-brown, thin cone scales are 12 to 18 millimeters long and 6 to 9 millimeters wide.
The cones are initially purple-green, but take on a shiny, light yellow-brown color as they ripen, which is between August and October of the second year depending on the region. They stand individually, in pairs or in whorls directed downwards on the branches. Whether the cones open and fall off, open or closed with resin, remain on the tree for many years depends on the subspecies. The weight of the cones also varies depending on the subspecies.
There can be between 1 and 50 germinable seeds in each cone. The winged seeds are reddish brown, darkly spotted and three to five millimeters long, making them one of the smallest pine seeds. The tapering wings at the end are 8 and 14 millimeters long and about 4.5 millimeters wide. The thousand grain weight is between 2.0 and 11.4 g, with the subsp. murrayana has the heaviest seeds. With increasing latitude of the place of origin, the seeds become smaller and lighter.
Chromosome number
The number of chromosomes is 2n = 24.
Root system
In optimal soil conditions, the coastal pine forms a heart-shaped root system with a taproot and several sinker roots.
bark
The up to 20 millimeters thick, smooth or rough bark is reddish-brown to black-brown in color. In old trees, it breaks into many small panels and scales. The bark of young twigs is bare and at first green to yellow-brown and sometimes frosted, but later turns yellow. In the second year the color changes from orange to brown.
Wood
The relatively soft wood is not very durable and is yellow to yellow-brown in color. The narrow, mostly only 20 to 26 millimeters thick sapwood surrounds the slightly darker colored core . The thickness of the sapwood is independent of the age of the trees, the trunk diameter and the number of annual rings . The transition to the heartwood usually takes place without a distinctive border. The density , the cellulose content and some other wood properties vary greatly between and within populations. However, many studies of the properties of wood have been carried out on trees that have grown outside of their natural range.
| Mechanical properties | value | unit |
|---|---|---|
| medium bulk density (air-dried) | 0.37-0.47 | g / cm³ |
| Compressive strength | 40.5-61.9 | N / mm² |
| Flexural strength | 78-132 | N / mm² |
| modulus of elasticity | 8270-14450 | N / mm² |
ecology
Root system and symbiosis
If vertical root formation is inhibited, the root system grows so flat that the tree is very sensitive to wind. When the roots reach the groundwater or solidified layers of soil, they stop growing vertically and continue to grow horizontally or die.
In its natural habitat in the northern United States and southwestern Canada, the species enters into a mycorrhizal partnership with the white matsutake ( Tricholoma magnivelare ) in order to ensure its supply of nutrient salts and water . There is hardly any information about the development of mycorrhiza on wet sites. Various mycorrhizal partners have been found in cultivation in Sweden . The bog boletus ( Suillus flavidus ) was particularly common . Successful attempts at artificial mycorrhizal formation found with the Bald Kremp Ling ( Paxillus involutus ), the Suillus bovinus ( Suillus bovinus ), the Suillus granulatus ( Suillus granulatus ), with the Orange Red Jochpilz ( Endogone lactiflua ), the terrible pea litter Ling ( Pisolithus tinctorius ), the Yellow Brownish root truffle ( Rhizopogon luteolus ) and the Reddish root truffle ( Rhizopogon roseolus ) instead. However, there were differences in the ability to form mycorrhiza in plants of different origins.
Flower ecology and spread
The pollination is carried by the wind.
After opening the cones, the seeds fall to the ground at a speed of 0.6 to 0.8 meters per second and are distributed in a radius of around 60 meters, in exceptional cases up to 300 meters, around the mother tree.
Abiotic harmful factors
In the natural range
Seedlings are sensitive to drought and high soil temperatures. In the second year, however, this risk decreases because the plants have a well-developed root system and the ability to close the stomata of the needles when there is a lack of water. The so-called “red belt” is weather-related damage that occurs on the eastern slopes of the Canadian Rockies at altitudes between 1,000 and 1,500 meters. It is caused by sudden, sharp temperature fluctuations in winter, which are triggered when warm and dry Chinook winds are replaced by cold, arctic winds. The needles turn red and die with the shoots. On flat or poorly drained soils, the species is endangered by wind throws . Snow breaks can occur in heavy snowfalls, especially in dense stands .
Outside the natural range
Especially on boggy locations, the species is endangered by wind throws and tends to grow as a saber . Trees of the subsp. contorta and var. bolanderi are at risk of snow breakage in Central Europe and are sensitive to frost. Trees of the subsp. latifolia , which were planted in northern Sweden , suffer considerably from winter and late frosts as well as temperature fluctuations and sometimes die. Compared to spruce ( Picea ) and Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ), the species has a greater tolerance to air pollutants, in particular to sulfur dioxide .
Diseases and pests
In the natural range
The most important pathogen is the American dwarf mistletoe ( Arceuthobium americanum ), which lives parasitically on the branches. An infestation with this parasite reduces the vigor, the wood quality and the lifespan of the host tree. While this species is the subsp. latifolia , it is found on the subsp. contorta very rarely. The occurrence is also influenced by forest fires. The more forest fires occur, the fewer trees are infested with dwarf mistletoe.
The hose fungus Atropellis piniphila infects trees directly through the bark and causes heavy resin excretions and growths, which lead to slow death of the host tree. When infested, the wood turns blue-black. The rust fungi Cronartium coleosporioides , Cronartium comandrae and Cronartium comptoniae, especially in young plants, cause great damage by causing cancerous growths and ringlets on the trunks. The rust fungus Endocronartium harknessii , which forms swelling, can cause major damage, especially in suppressed trees . The needle mushrooms Davisomycella ampla , Elytroderma deformans , Lophodermella concolor and Scirrhia pini occasionally occur epidemically . Root rot is often caused by the common honey fungus ( Armillaria mellea ) and the root sponge ( Heterobasidion annosum ).
Of the approximately 240 insect species that have been detected on the coastal pine, the mountain pine beetle ( Dendroctonus ponderosae ) causes the greatest damage. The mountain pine beetle is epidemic and transmits blue stain . Although it causes great damage, it is still of great importance for the maintenance of the coastal pine population. Trees die as a result of heavy infestation and thus promote forest fires, which are important for natural regeneration. Little data is available on the extent of the damage caused by birds and mammals. Squirrels could be of concern as they can significantly cut down the seeds stored in the cones. The common red squirrel ( Tamiasciurus hudsonicus ) is able to remove the closed cones of the subsp. latifolia , while the Douglas squirrel ( Tamiasciurus douglasii ) has adapted to populations with opening cones.
Outside the natural range
When growing outside of their natural range, it happens that the fungus species that belong to the local flora and that have not yet appeared as serious parasites attack the coastal pine epidemically. In Scotland , the carcinogenic fungus Crumenulopsis sororia caused major failures in young plantings. In Northern Europe, lodgepole pine in comparison to has Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) is less susceptible to the pine blister rust ( Cronartium flaccidum ), the Kienzopf ( Endocronartium pini ) and the jaw rotary grate ( Melampsora populnea proven). In northern Sweden, the expansion of cultivation into areas with extreme weather conditions is limited by the fungus Gremmeniella abietina , which causes stem cancer . The species has proven to be more resistant than the Scots pine to the coniferous pathogens Lophodermium seditiosum and white snow mold ( Phacidium infestans ). Root rot is caused by the common hallimasch ( Armillaria mellea ) and the root sponge ( Heterobasidion annosum ), which, however, also infest the species in its natural range.
In Western and Central Europe, the coastal pine is partially attacked by the pine moth ( Rhyacionia buoliana ) to such an extent that cultivation is sometimes impossible. When the larvae eat, the shoots deform, forming so-called “post horns”, and the terminal buds die off. The infestation is limited in areas with low winter temperatures. The epidemic of the pine owl ( Panolis flammea ) is reported in Scotland . Elk ( Alces alces ), roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) and earth mice ( Microtus agrestis ) cause severe damage , especially in northern Scandinavia . Due to the thin bark and the high resin content, the style is very Sweeping and peeling at risk .
Forest fires
Although the coastal pine is very endangered by forest fires , forest fires represent an important ecological factor for the emergence and conservation of the species. Especially where the species is not a climax tree species and other tree species dominate, it benefits from the fact that the forest fires destroy competing tree species and ground vegetation. It is a pioneer species after forest fires and colonizes devastated areas very quickly and in large numbers. The cones, which are sealed with resin on many trees, are of great importance for the rapid settlement of forest fire areas, as these only open when exposed to heat and release the seeds. The germinability of the seeds is hardly affected by the high temperatures if they only act on them for a short time.
Distribution and location
The coastal pine is native to western North America and has the largest distribution area of all North American pine species: It extends in the south from northern Baja California in Mexico to the Canadian Yukon in the north. The coastal pine is found from the Pacific coast of Alaska in the west to the Black Hills in South Dakota in the east. The total area of the coastal pine forests covers around 26 million hectares, of which 6 million hectares are in nine US states and 20 million hectares in the Canadian provinces of British Columbia , Alberta and Yukon.
The coastal pine is mainly grown in Scandinavia , Great Britain and Ireland for forestry purposes.
Since the coastal pine is extremely location-tolerant, it often grows in locations that are unsuitable for other tree species. Due to the large distribution area, the species colonizes many different location types. Near the coast it usually grows on dry, sandy and nutrient-poor, less often on swampy soils. In mountainous regions it usually grows on medium to deep, acidic, well-drained, less often on very moist soils . In general, the species avoids limestone soils . In Canada, however, there are larger stands that grow on calcareous glacial soils. The Pinus contorta subsp. contorta grows in the northern range mainly on swampy locations, in the south, however, often on rocky locations and sand dunes. The Pinus contorta var. Bolanderi grows on extremely nutrient-poor, heavily podsolized soils with a pH of 2.8 to 3.9. In the mountains of California , the coastal pine mainly inhabits locations with readily available water such as lake and river banks. In Washington and Oregon it populates light and porous volcanic soils. In the central Yukon, it grows in boreal forests on permafrost soils . The species colonizes altitudes from 0 to 3660 meters. It is frost hardy down to temperatures of −57 ° C. The annual rainfall varies greatly depending on the region, but is between 250 and 2,000 mm in the entire distribution area.
The coastal pine is part of many different plant communities. In western North America it is represented in 27 of the 55 different forest types with different frequencies. In addition, it often occurs in pure stands because it is intolerant of competing tree species and is a pioneer tree species after forest fires. Their typical occurrence is in damp and cold depressions; for such locations it represents the climax tree species. On dry hilltops at low altitudes inland it is often displaced by the yellow pine ( Pinus ponderosa ), on better soils it is often replaced by other tree species. The var. Bolanderi forms dwarf forests with Cupressus pygmaea and the dwarf Pinus muricata . The Pinus contorta subsp. latifolia forms subalpine and high-montane coniferous forests with the rocky mountain fir ( Abies lasiocarpa ), the Engelmann spruce ( Picea engelmannii ), the white-stemmed pine ( Pinus albicaulis ) and other types of pine. The subsp. murrayana forms high-montane fir forests with the magnificent fir ( Abies magnifica ) and subalpine pine forests with other pine species. But it also occurs in open and almost pure stocks. At medium altitudes, the coastal pine forms mixed stands with the coastal fir ( Abies grandis ), the West American larch ( Larix occidentalis ), the sugar pine ( Pinus lambertiana ), the western Weymouth pine ( Pinus monticola ) and the Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga) menziesii ). In Yukon, it mainly forms mixed stands with the white spruce ( Picea glauca ) and the black spruce ( Picea mariana ) on former forest fire areas . Mixed stands of the East American larch ( Larix laricina ), the balsam poplar ( Populus balsamifera ) and the American quivering aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) are formed on more humid locations .
Paleobotany
There are different views as to how the coastal pine populated northwestern Canada. During the Vistula glaciation, known as the Wisconsin glaciation in North America , the numerous pine species in North America were pushed back into the area around the Gulf of Mexico . It is believed that the coastal pine survived the glacial period in some small, non-ice-covered areas in Alaska and Yukon. The intraspecific differences between these populations and other populations speak for this theory. The rare fossil finds from this period speak against this theory. The fossils only accumulate in the Upper Pleistocene . Another theory assumes that the species migrated north from southern and non-icy regions on the Pacific coast after the glacial period. About 7,000 years ago, the coastal pine colonized coastal dunes in southern Oregon as a pioneer tree species . 4000 to 1000 years ago it settled in small populations further north, from where it was displaced by other tree species due to the increasing warming.
Systematics
The first description of Pinus contorta was in 1838 by David Douglas in John Claudius Loudon : Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum , Volume 4, pages 2292, f. 2210, 2211.
It is very likely that Pinus contorta can be phylogenetically traced back to Pinus premurrayana Knowlton . Remains of this species have been found in the Eocene strata of Yellowstone National Park . The number of chromosomes is 2n = 24. No special features of the chromosome structure are known. The coastal pine is closely related to the Banks pine ( Pinus banksiana ), the Monterey pine ( Pinus radiata ) and with Pinus oocarpa and is placed by Strauss and Doerksen together with these species in a monophyletic group within the pines. What these species have in common is that the cones can remain on the tree for a long time in the closed state. With this property of storing seeds in the treetop beyond the ripening period, there is great intraspecific variation in the coastal pine. Large amounts of seeds can be stored over the years. For example, stocks in western Alberta, western Colorado and southern Montana have counted 4 to 8 million seeds per hectare. The largest number of closed cones has the var. Bolanderi , which has a very low seed production. Apparently there is a close connection between the ability to produce only a few germinable seeds but to store them for a long time. The proportion of closed cones only increases when the tree is 20 to 50 years old. Even then, however, enough cones that open to ensure natural regeneration in periods when there are no forest fires. It is believed that this trait is hereditary. Another clear and genetically determined intraspecific variation is the composition of the monoterpenes of the bark resin . In populations on the coast, β- phellandrons predominate, while in populations far from the coast α and β- pinene increase clinically. The limonene and 3-carene concentrations also vary greatly.
Subspecies and varieties
Due to the large variety of shapes of the species, the coastal pine was previously divided into different species. Morphological studies showed, however, that these species are forms of a single species. William Burke Critchfield distinguished five geographical races , which he assigned the rank of subspecies. The coastal pine has been divided into three subspecies and two varieties since 1985 , but further forms , ecotypes and varieties are distinguished within these subspecies . However, it makes little sense to further subdivide the species taxonomically. The subspecies are largely geographically separated, presumably for millennia, but genetic exchange also takes place at overlapping areas of distribution.
For a general description of the species see above .
- The coastal pine ( Pinus contorta Douglas ex Loudon ) subsp. contorta is divided into two varieties:
- The coastal variety ( Pinus contorta subsp. Contorta var. Contorta ) was first described by David Douglas in 1838. It occurs along the Pacific coast from southern Alaska to northwestern California in an approximately 200 km wide coastal strip. It grows as a short-stemmed, round-crowned and coarse-branched tree that reaches heights of 3 to 10 meters and a diameter of 60 to 80 centimeters at chest height. The stiff dark green needles are close together and have up to 2 resin channels. They remain on the tree for 3 to 8 years. The cones open shortly after ripening and often remain closed on the tree.
- The Mendocino-White-Plains variety ( Pinus contorta subsp. Contorta var. Bolanderi (Parl.) Koehne. , Syn. Subsp. Bolanderi (Parl.) Critchf. ) Was first described by Filippo Parlatore in 1868. It occurs in a relatively small area in the Mendocino Mountains on the Pacific coast of California. It grows as a 1 to 8 meter high, broad-crowned bush or tree with a diameter of 2.5 to 10 centimeters at chest height. The needles have no resin canals and remain on the tree for 2 to 4 years. The cones are closed by resin and remain on the tree for a long time.
- The Rocky Mountain Intermountain subspecies ( Pinus contorta subsp. Latifolia (Engelm.) Critchf. , Syn .: Pinus contorta var. Latifolia Engelm. ) Was first described by Georg Engelmann in 1871 . It occurs in the Rocky Mountains in the Intermountain region and the Northern Cascade Range . It grows as a 30 to 40 meter high, straight, narrow-crowned and finely branched tree with a diameter of 50 to 70 centimeters at chest height. The often yellow-green needles stand loosely on the branches and have between 0 and 1 resin canal. They remain on the tree between 6 and 13 years. The light brown cones partially open after ripening, but often remain closed on the tree by resin. They then only open when exposed to fire.
- The Sierra-Cascade subspecies ( Pinus contorta subsp. Murrayana (Balf.) Critchf. , Syn .: Pinus contorta var. Murrayana (Balf.) S.Watson , Pinus murrayana Balf. ) Was in 1853 by John Hutton Balfour firstdescribed. It occurs in the southern Cascade Range, southern California and northern Baja California and Mexico. It grows as a 20 to 30 meter high, straight, narrow-crowned and finely branched tree with a diameter of 30 to 50 centimeters at chest height. The yellowish-green needles have 2 resin canals and remain on the tree between 2 and 11 years. The yellow-brown cones open when ripe and usually fall off.
The Del-Norte breed, which is native to northwestern California, also deserves a taxonomic rank according to Critchfield. As a subspecies, however, it has so far remained unnamed.
Hybrids
A natural cross took place with the Banks pine ( Pinus banksiana ). There are populations of these hybrids in Edmonton , Alberta and the Northwest Territories , where the range of the two species overlaps. The hybrids can be distinguished morphologically and chemically from the two parent species. They act as intermediaries .
Artificial crossing attempts were made with a total of ten species of pine, but were only successful with Banks pine. In 1939 the first successful attempt to crossbreed the Pinus contorta subsp. murrayana and the Banks Pine instead. 31% of the crossbreeding attempts produced fertile hybrids which were named Pinus murraybanksiana and which grew stronger than the parent trees up to the age of 20 years. In an attempt to cross with pollen from the Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana ), some seeds emerged, but the seedlings were chlorotic, dwarfed, and died shortly after germination. In the USA and Europe there were also interspecific crossbreeding attempts on a large scale.
Danger
In the Red List of the IUCN , the lodgepole pine as "not at risk" (least concern) out.
use
Forestry interest in the coastal pine in North America was only aroused 20 to 30 years ago. Until then it was mainly used as firewood. It is an important type of wood, especially in British Columbia . However, there are still no uniform criteria for classifying the wood into quality classes, which would be an important basis for trade and use. The wood is used for interior fittings, for the manufacture of masts, for construction purposes, for railway sleepers, for pulp production and in mining. If the wood is digested in the sulphite process , it results in good newsprint and high-quality printing papers. Especially in western North America, the species is planted in recreation areas and at higher altitudes for water protection measures. There are large forestry crops in Great Britain , Ireland and Scandinavia , where the species is planted as a substitute for Scots pine and spruce. In Sweden, with a calculated rotation period of 50 to 65 years, the additional yield is around 35 to 40% compared to Scots pine. Forestry cultivation was tried especially in Europe. The species was first brought to Great Britain in 1853 or 1854.
swell
- Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of Conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 363-384 .
- William B. Critchfield: The late Quaternary history of lodgepole and jack pines. (PDF; 930 kB) In: Canadian Journal for Forest Research. Volume 15, 1985, pp. 749-772.
- Entry with Silvics of North America . (engl.)
- Description and classification of the species at The Gymnosperm Database . (engl.)
- Robert Kral: Pinus. : Pinus contorta - the same text online as the printed work , In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (Hrsg.): Flora of North America North of Mexico. Volume 2: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1993, ISBN 0-19-508242-7 .
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b c Silvics Manual at Silvics of North America ( Memento from October 21, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ A b c d William B. Critchfield: The late Quaternary history of lodgepole and jack pines . (PDF; 930 kB) In: Canadian Journal for Forest Research. Volume 15, 1985, pp. 749-772.
- ↑ a b c d e f g Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 364 .
- ↑ a b Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 379-380 .
- ^ Robert Kral: Pinus. : Pinus contorta - the same text online as the printed work , In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (Hrsg.): Flora of North America North of Mexico. Volume 2: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1993, ISBN 0-19-508242-7 .
- ↑ a b c Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 365 .
- ↑ a b c Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 367 .
- ↑ a b c Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 367-368 .
- ↑ Pinus contorta at Tropicos.org. In: IPCN Chromosome Reports . Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 370 .
- ↑ a b Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 368 .
- ↑ Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 376-377 .
- ↑ Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 378 .
- ↑ Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 377-378 .
- ↑ Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 378-379 .
- ↑ Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 374-375 .
- ↑ a b Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 373-374 .
- ↑ Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 374 .
- ↑ Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 364-365 .
- ↑ Pinus contorta at Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Retrieved April 18, 2019.
- ↑ Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 371 .
- ↑ Nicholas C. Wheeler, Raymond P. Guries: Population structure, genic diversity, and morphological variation in Pinuscontorta Dougl. In: Canadian Journal of Forest Research . tape 12 , no. 3 , 1982, pp. 595-606 , doi : 10.1139 / x82-091 .
- ↑ a b c d Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 369 .
- ↑ a b Schütt, Weisgerber, Schuck, Lang, Stimm, Roloff: Lexicon of conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 373 .
- ↑ Pinus contorta in the Red List of Threatened Species of the IUCN 2013. Posted by: A. Farjon, 2011. Accessed November 30, 2013.
