Effigy Mounds National Monument

Effigy Mounds National Monument
Marching Bear Mounds
Coordinates: 43 ° 5 ′ 18.8 "  N , 91 ° 11 ′ 11.2"  W.
Location:	Iowa , United States
Specialty:	Geoglyphs of prehistoric Indians
Next city:	Prairie du Chien , Wisconsin
Surface:	10.2 km²
Founding:	October 25, 1949
Visitors:	79,800 (2010)
Location of the reserve and its parts on the banks of the Mississippi

Effigy Mounds National Monument is a memorial and an archaeological reserve by the type of National Monuments in the valley of the Mississippi River in the northeast of the US state of Iowa . It preserves over 200  man-made hill structures called mounds , 31 of which are shaped as geoglyphs in the outlines of various animals. They originated between 500 BC. BC and 1200 and were created by a pre-Columbian Indian culture of the Woodland period as burial and cult structures, whereby the figurative forms did not appear until around the year 700 and were created until around 1200. The culture of their builders is known as the Effigy Mounds culture ("culture of the image-like mound"), they were the last hunters and gatherers in the region.

The exploration of the mounds began in the 19th century, well-founded knowledge about the builders could only be obtained in the 20th century. The reserve was established in 1949 by President Harry S. Truman and expanded several times. It is administered by the National Park Service . The name comes from the English word effigy for figurative image and delimits the mounds of the region from the much larger, mostly younger, and mostly geometric artificial hills in the southeastern United States.

Location of the area

Occurrence of the Effigy Mounds in what is now southern Wisconsin and neighboring states

River valley in the protected area

Two bird-shaped mounds (the outlines are colored with lime for research purposes)

The area is located on the west bank of the Mississippi River in the transition zone between the prairies of the Great Plains in the west and the mixed forest zone around the Great Lakes . It was ice-free in the last ice age ( called Wisconsin glaciation in North America ), the steep bank of the river has therefore retained its rugged shape and the region was settled comparatively early. The landscape of the ice-free driftless area is characterized by limestone plateaus with partly deeply carved river valleys, and karst phenomena occur in many places . In prehistoric times, the region was mostly loosely forested, with the trees being kept open by frequent small fires . The rock of the steep bank in today's protected area has embedded layers of flint .

Effigy Mounds

As Mounds all artificial hills are called, which were built in the eastern United States of pre-historic Indian cultures. The oldest mounds are burial mounds from the Archaic period and were found in the southeastern United States from around 3500 BC. Created. On the upper reaches of the Mississippi River, this burial custom only came about around 500 BC. At the beginning of the Woodland period, the figurative effigy mounds of the late Woodland phase developed between 700 and 1200 AD.

The Effigy Mounds occurrence extends over southern Wisconsin and the border regions with Illinois , Iowa and Minnesota in the catchment area of ​​the Mississippi River and its tributary Wisconsin River . The Effigy Mounds National Monument on the edge of the range preserves the largest number and the best-preserved mounds of the culture, the remains of which were mostly destroyed by agriculture and forestry elsewhere. Only in the rugged Mississippi river valley have the hills been largely preserved.

The mounds of Effigy Mounds National Monument are small compared to those of other cultures in the southeastern United States. The largest is around 40 m in length, typical of the figurative ones are around 25 m, the oldest, round ones are often less than 10 m. All are between 60 cm and a little over a meter high. They appear in groups and form common structures.

Some mostly old, round mounds are burial mounds, the dead are mostly buried in a crouched position with extensive grave goods such as spearheads and ceramics . Many figurative effigy mounds do not contain graves. Earlier excavations and today's non-destructive recordings with ground penetrating radar show that most of the mounds were built up by clearing the humus cover and creating a flat subsurface, followed by adding soil in individual lumps. For some, a shallow pit in the later shape was dug or the mound was built on the unworked surface. The structure of joined clods of earth is suitable for transporting the material in baskets.

Occasionally, in other regions and epochs, mounds in animal form have been created, but they are not included in the Effigy Mounds Culture . A possible relationship between the Effigy Mounds of the upper Mississippi and the largest known mound in animal form, the Great Serpent Mound in Ohio , is unclear, as its age and cultural tradition are not determined due to contradicting dates.

history

The oldest mounds in the region around southern Wisconsin emerged at the end of the Archaic period around 500 BC. From burial forms of the red ocher type, in which ground red hematite was scattered in tombs. In the south of the reserve a mound with hematite layers was found; It is questionable whether they were artificially created and can be assigned to the red ocher cultures, as the hill otherwise has clear characteristics of a much later origin.

The mounds of the Effigy Mounds National Monument date from the Woodland period between 500 BC. BC and around 1150. Little is known about the associated culture. In the humid climate of the region with strong seasonal temperature fluctuations, most of the artifacts weather quickly; there is only a few material for a ¹⁴ C dating . People had had ceramics since the archaic period , around 500 BC. The use of copper comes up. This was found in what is now Ontario and traded all over eastern North America. The residents of the Mississippi and Wisconsin region were nomadic hunters and gatherers and followed the food sources according to the season. In autumn and winter they used the resources of the mountain ranges, in particular by hunting white-tailed deer and collecting acorns and the nuts of the hickory tree , in the warmer seasons they lived near rivers and lived mainly from fishing and collecting mussels and seeds of wild water rice . In addition, there were the beginnings of agriculture with the cultivation of pumpkins and sunflowers . In summer they lived in temporary wigwams made of branches covered with bark, in families or in small groups , in winter several families joined together and they retired to sheltered rock niches . Their hunting weapon was the spear with the spear thrower , the most important tools were stone scrapers and axes . Tools made from bone were common, but have not survived. The residents regularly started small forest fires as a means of driven hunt and to promote the fruit-bearing tree species they use in the forest. Fire also served as a tool in cutting down large trees.

Early Woodland Period (500-100 BC)

The early woodland stage hills are round, less than ten meters in diameter and less than a meter high. In them, several dead are usually buried in individual pits. Red, hematite-rich rock flour was often scattered into the graves. Some old mounds in the south of the reserve, in the Sny Magill Unit, are attributed to the end of the early woodland stage.

Middle Woodland Level (100 BC-700)

The middle Woodland period is marked by the rise of long-distance trade, complex funeral customs, and new, finer forms of pottery. The people of the Upper Mississippi Valley were influenced by the new cultural exchanges with the Hopewell culture in the Ohio River Valley . The connections allowed the long-distance trade of copper from the Great Lakes and obsidian from the Rocky Mountains through all of eastern North America and the prairie regions. Also, mica , galena and flint were transported over long distances. The mounds in the protected area, which are assigned to the epoch, are often larger than in the past, the round tips are smoothly shaped and are called conical (conical, conical). They too usually contain graves and grave goods. Many corpses show signs of secondary burial : in winter or the harvest season, the dead were wrapped in animal skins or mats made of vegetable material and placed on trees or wooden platforms until it was time to erect a mound. Occasionally cremation and burial in rectangular pits with vertical clay walls also appeared. The latter customs came from the Hopewell region to the upper reaches of the Mississippi. Towards the end of the middle Woodland period, the first composite mounds emerged: In addition to the large conical burial mound, a number of smaller, round or elongated mounds without graves were created. The longest such structure in the reserve extends over 140 m.

Late Woodland Stage (700–1150)

Marching Bear Mounds (northern part; the outlines are colored with lime for research purposes)

In the late Woodland Period, the construction of the figurative Effigy Mounds began and the Effigy Mound Builders culture spread in the transition area between the Prairies and the Great Lakes, with a focus in what is now Wisconsin. Un -calibrated ¹⁴ C data figurative hill between 700 and 1030. During round Mounds continue were created, along with hills appear in animal form. Birds, turtles, lizards, bears lying on their side, panthers or wild cats and a few people are found. Only birds and bears have been spotted at Effigy Mounds National Monument. They are only partly burial mounds, and grave goods are almost completely missing.

The Effigy Mounds were always created in groups, often combined with round and elongated mounds. Some of these groups reached considerable size. At Harpers Ferry , Iowa, just north of the reserve, 895 mounds were mapped in the 1890s, and by 1930 all but about twenty had been destroyed by agriculture and forestry. The group in the Sny Magill Unit of the reserve is considered to be the largest preserved concentration of mounds . The groups were either densely distributed over a large area or arranged in linear structures. The latter usually run along terrain forms such as slope edges and river terraces . If the structures indicate a direction of movement, the forms are almost always oriented downhill.

The significance of the figurative mounds for the builders at the time is unknown. Today's Indian inhabitants of the region “see the hills as sacred places that can establish the connection between people, nature and the realm of spirits”. The archaeologist R. Clark Mallam writes that the mounds should "be seen as works of art that symbolically integrate prehistoric beliefs and values". And further: The hills “may have been the means by which people […] tried to define and express their philosophical beliefs about the universe, the life force and the complex connections of natural and cultural relationships that they had at the level of the hunters and collectors were subject ”.

Ethnologists assume that the Effigy Mounds were territorial markings and at the same time meeting places of clans and larger clan associations or phratries . Even today, the same animals are distributed as totems in several Indian peoples of the Sioux language family , as they were erected by the Effigy Mound Builders , with the clans being separated into dual organized lineages ( Moietys ) of air and earth. The Thunderbird -Clan dominated at the Winnebago , the upper moiety of the Bear Clan, the land animal clans and the water spirit shown as a Panther, the clan of the aquatic animals in the symbolically lower social group. Usually there is one symbol in a group of mounds, but another symbol is almost always present. The bears dominate the National Monument; Birds are clearly outnumbered. This situation is consistent with other localities in the distribution area. Birds occur almost everywhere, bears and panthers are regularly mutually exclusive, with the bears on the Mississippi being typical for the south of the Effigy Mounds area, while the panthers predominate further upstream in what is now Minnesota. A territorial function of the mounds is derived from this: " Effigy Mounds divide areas, make boundaries known and lay claim to control."

New cultural techniques spread as early as the beginning of the late Woodland stage: the spearheads of the time became smaller and more precise. The ceramic finds of the period were decorated in many ways. Since local materials were used almost exclusively for tools, it is assumed that long-distance trade was in crisis. Around 900 further changes in the finds become apparent. Settlements were inhabited all year round, with the residents trying to compensate for their lingering in the less suitable time of year for the respective location by using resources more intensively. In the Mississippi river valley, datable clamshell heaps show that freshwater clams were collected more intensively than ever before. The residents of the riparian zone are also growing maize for the first time in the region . Analyzes within the framework of New Archeology suggest that the main cause is an increase in population beyond the capacity of the available resources. Calculations of the load-bearing capacity of the savannah landscape show that the scarcity of firewood and huntable white-tailed deer in particular forced cultural change. The decline in deer was exacerbated by the fact that bow hunting was emerging on the upper Mississippi at the same time .

The population collapsed around 1050. Only two settlements are known to exist in the entire area, one of them only around 25 kilometers west of the National Monument. These show significant innovations: They are hidden inland at bends in smaller rivers and are surrounded by palisades . For the first time one can speak of villages, before only individual families or clans settled. The residents made their living from hunting and growing maize, for the first time they used hill beds that were frost-free earlier in the year in order to bring the ripening of the fruits forward and thus avoid conflicts with the best hunting season. These changes, as well as new types of ceramics, stem from contact with the Mississippi culture some 600 km downstream, which then reached its heyday and expanded northwards. This contact is considered peaceful because of the extensive exchange of ceramics, so that it remains unclear against whom the fortification of the villages was directed.

Another hundred years later, around 1150, both villages were abandoned. At the same time, on the Mississippi, south and north of the two places, two separate settlement areas of a new Indian culture, the Oneota, emerged . Their exact origin and development is unknown. They intensified the corn-growing and led beans in the region one, so that all three typical crops of pre-Columbian Indian cultures (pumpkin, corn and beans, the so-called Three Sisters , Three Sisters ), the upper Mississippi had reached. They used the abundance of fish in the rivers again and were the first to master bison hunting . Their villages were large and permanent, so that the transition from hunters and gatherers to arable farmers and the completion of settling were set in here. The Oneota no longer built figurative mounds; but the round hill emerged sporadically in the following centuries, probably until around 1700. From the Oneota went about the same time as the first contact with Europeans, Iowa , Oto , Winnebago , Sauk and Fox produced by the joint Siouan languages are connected .

Colonization by whites

Area survey of the Marching Bear Mounds (Drawing: Ellison Orr; 1935)

The first whites in the area were the French missionary Jacques Marquette and the fur trader Louis Joliet , who traveled the upper reaches of the Mississippi in 1673. The first report of figural Effigy Mounds comes from Jonathan Carver, a surveyor who explored the region from 1766-69. In 1780 the upper Mississippi was officially settled by white farmers. The early settlers also explored the mounds, with the Effigy Mounds lagging behind the larger mounds of the Mississippi culture and the Adena culture in interest . Many whites did not believe that the Indians, considered primitive, had created these structures. The debate about this continued through the entire 19th century, with almost all of the exploration of the hills serving to clarify their origins. The explanation has been speculated about a "super race" that would have left the region before the Indians colonized it, the Lost Tribes of Israel , ancient Egyptians , ancient Greeks, and many other builders suggested by amateur archaeologists of the time. Others recognized the mounds for what they were, burial and cult structures of earlier Indian cultures.

The systematic search and mapping of the mounds in the region on the upper reaches of the Mississippi began around 1880. Most were destroyed by agriculture and forestry in the following decades. In the 1930s, funding from the Works Progress Administration under the New Deal made professional archaeological exploration possible. The then almost 80-year-old retired teacher, Ellison Orr, had been studying the mounds out of private interest since the beginning of the century and was in charge of the field work. His work laid the basis for the designation of the protected area in 1949, which he still experienced at the age of 92. He died two years later, leaving all of his records to the National Monument, which is based on it to this day.

The National Monument

Map of the main part ( North and South Unit ) around the visitor center with the nearby mounds

The first proposal for a federal protected area for the mounds in northeastern Iowa dates back to 1909. During the following First World War , conservation efforts were largely on hold. Between 1917 and 1921, Iowa proposed the establishment of a national park for the Mississippi Valley several times , each with different justifications, for example the protection of the balsamic fir forests or the floodplains , which rely heavily on tourism . In 1932 the National Park Service finally examined the suitability for a national park and declined - only the areas with the mounds would be suitable for a national monument .

Between 1936 and 1942, the state of Iowa and the federal government acquired land on the banks of the Mississippi around the mouth of the Yellow River , but World War II interrupted the protection again. Effigy Mounds National Monument was established by President Harry S. Truman's proclamation only in 1946 when Iowa handed over the land within the established boundaries to the US Department of the Interior . It has been expanded several times since then, most recently in 2000 by 4.23 km², so that it now covers 10.2 km². A temporary visitor center was replaced by a museum building in 1961 with funds from Mission 66 for the 50th anniversary of the National Park Service, and in 1971 the human bones that had been shown until then were removed from the exhibition. On October 15, 1966, Effigy Mounds National Monument was added to the National Register of Historic Places as a Prehistoric Site and Historic District .

The protected area now includes four areas with mounds: North and South Unit, the oldest parts at the visitor center (see map opposite), the Heritage Addition on the Yellow River to the west and the Sny Magill Unit on the banks of the Mississippi 17 kilometers further south, it contains the largest number and density of mounds and so far has no facilities for visitors.

Research in the field

Great Bear Mound

In the early days of the reserve, archaeological excavations were still taking place in mounds: Inside the Great Bear Mound , a stone formation in the form of an altar and large amounts of charcoal were found in the 1950s, followed by excavations in a large, conical mound at Fire Point between six and eight burials of different ages and of different types were discovered: adults and children, stretched and crouching positions, and remains of cremations were embedded in a hill. Since 1959, only non-destructive explorations have been permitted. With methods such as geomagnetics and ground penetrating radar, complexes of stone and fireplaces were discovered inside many figural Effigy Mounds , as well as pits with walls made of clay , reminiscent of stone boxes. Tombs are rare in Effigy Mounds . Where burials occur inside figurative mounds, men and women are equally involved, and children's graves have also been found. Grave goods are rare here and are more likely to be attributed to the fireplaces in the same mound. 25% of the dead are direct burials, 61% secondary burials of corpses previously deposited in animal skins or plant mats - these are often buried in groups, 2% are cremations and 12% were found as an accumulation of bones that do not allow any conclusions to be drawn about the burial .

In the 1970s, the outlines of the mounds were colored with lime in order to be able to take aerial photographs of the area in winter and thus better recognize the relationships between the structures. Since 2003 digital recordings have been made for a geographic information system .

Relations with today's Indians

As part of their research, the archaeologists have always sought contact with the Indians of the region in order to get to know their traditions about the mounds. According to the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990, the monument, like all federal historical or anthropological institutions, was required to identify human bones, funerary objects and other cultic objects in its collection and to examine whether they could be returned to present-day descendants were. A study carried out in 2001 showed that the direct cultural or genetic lines of tradition to today's Indian peoples that are necessary for publication can hardly be proven. The Oto and Iowa , who today mainly live in Oklahoma through migration, displacement and displacement , may be regarded as closest related to the builders of the Effigy Mounds , who had upheavals at the end of the Woodland period and the conflicts during and after the dissolution of the Oneota but possibly existing traditions interrupted.

On the other hand, a large number of Indian groups rely on traditions that the builders of the Effigy Mounds describe as their ancestors and claim to represent the cultural background of the Mounds. These narratives are contradicting themselves and one another and cannot be reconciled with the archaeological findings. There is also no explanation of how they could have survived the long periods and cultural upheavals since the mounds were built. Similar claims, which the Mounds make in the tradition of their own family or cultural ancestors, also come from outside the Indian societies: Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ("Mormons") and of " New Age " groups explain these Mounds according to their lore.

There are regular consultations with the Winnebago living in the vicinity of the protected area today . Like other social groups, they also participated in the drafting work for a General Management Plan , which was drawn up by 2009 and is intended to determine the orientation of the National Monument for the next 15 to 20 years.

natural reserve

Backwater on the Yellow River

Prairie in the reserve

The National Monument is designated as a memorial and archaeological reserve, due to its size and location on the river, it also contains habitats worthy of protection. As the Mississippi Flyway, the Mississippi river valley is an important migration route for birds , the rocky banks are breeding grounds for birds of prey , and the forests have not been used for forestry for several decades. In the area there are several small prairies , which have been renatured from agricultural areas at great expense, and wetlands on the Yellow River. The area is particularly important for birds. Of 124 recorded species of stand cerulean warbler , the Warbler and the stockpile warbler , the veery and the forest throttle , the Red-shouldered Hawk and the bald eagle under special protection. At the turn of the millennium, Effigy Mounds National Monument was classified by the Audubon Society as an Important Bird Area .

The National Monument fits in between neighboring wildlife sanctuaries , including the Driftless Area National Wildlife Refuge and Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife Refuge , two National Wildlife Refuges , Pikes Peak State Park, and the protected portions of the Yellow River State Forest . On the opposite bank of the Mississippi, Wisconsin, lies Wyalusing State Park .

tourism

Effigy Mounds National Monument can be reached via Iowa Highway 76 , which is here as part of the Great River Road on the Mississippi as a National Scenic Byway , from the Marquette on US Highway US 18 , about five kilometers south . In the information center, visitors will find an exhibition on the mounds, their builders and the culture of the Woodland period, as well as the later Indians of the region. There are three large conical mounds next to the visitor center. The Great Bear Group is about 1.5 km away on a hiking trail. The Marching Bear formation is located in the southern part and can be reached on foot from a parking lot on the Mississippi or on a one-hour hike from the visitor center in each direction. In addition to the mounds, forests and prairies, the National Monument has a wide view of the river from the high bank. Here, too, the viewpoints cannot be reached by car, but only on foot.

In the summer months, the rangers offer guided hikes several times a day, there are also special themed tours and a weekend every year in October dedicated to bird migration . There is no accommodation or food in the reserve.

In terms of area and number of visitors, the National Monument is in the middle of the areas of the National Park Service. In the sparsely populated and agricultural north of Iowa, the only national monument in the state is nevertheless of tourist importance. Almost half of the visitors take advantage of commercial overnight accommodation in the region, but only less than 10% of the non-residents travel specifically to northeastern Iowa because of the monument. The main attraction nearby is Iowa's oldest licensed casino in Marquette.

literature

• Ron Cockrell: Figures on the Landscape - Effigy Mounds National Monument Historic Resource Study . National Park Service, Omaha, Nebraska, 2003 (also online: Figures on the Landscape ).
• Robert A. Birmingham, Leslie E. Eisenberg: Indian mounds of Wisconsin . University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 2000, ISBN 0299168700 .
• James L. Theler, Robert F. Boszhardt: Collapse of crucial resources and culture change - A model for the woodland to oneota transformation in the upper midwest . In: American Antiquity , Volume 71, No. 3 (2006), ISSN  0002-7316 , pp. 433-472.
• William G. Gartner: Late Woodland Landscapes of Wisconsin - ridged fields, effigy mounds and territoriality . In: Antiquity , Volume 73 (1990), ISSN  0003-598X , pp. 671-683.
• Richard W. Yerkes. The Woodland and Mississippian traditions in the prehistory of Midwestern North America . In: Journal of World Prehistory , Volume 2, No. 3 (September 1988), ISSN  1573-7802 , pp. 307-358, doi : 10.1007 / BF00975619 .
• William M. Hurley: The Late Woodland stage: Effigy Mound culture . In: Wisconsin Archaeologist , Volume 67 (1986), ISSN  0043-6364 , pp. 283-301.

Web links

Commons : Effigy Mounds National Monument  - Collection of images, videos, and audio files

• National Park Service: Effigy Mounds National Monument (official site; English)

Individual evidence

1. ^ Peter Neal Peregrine, Melvin Ember: Encyclopedia of Prehistory . Springer, New York 2001, ISBN 0306462605 , pp. 255 ff.
2. ^ Effigy Mounds Administrative History, The First Inhabitants
3. ^ Description of the mounds according to Lane A. Beck: Regional Approaches to Mortuary Analysis . Springer, New York 1995, ISBN 0306449315 , p. 105 f.
4. ↑ The presentation of this chapter is based on Cockrell, fourth chapter .
5. ↑ Theler / Boszhardt, p. 443.
6. ↑ Theler / Boszhardt, p. 442 f.
7. ↑ Theler / Boszhardt, p. 436.
8. ↑ Paul L. Beaubien, Archaeological Investigation of the Sny-Magill Mound Group, 1952 , Memorandum to the National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, March 16, 1953, from the files of the Effigy Mounds National Monument, quoted in Cockrell, fourth chapter .
9. ^ Effigy Mounds Administrative History, The First Inhabitants
10. ↑ Cockrell, Chapter Four .
11. ^ R. Clark Mallam, James E. Mount: When on High: An Aerial Perspective of Effigy Mounds . In: Journal of the Iowa Archaeological Society 27 (1980), p. 129, quoted in Cockrell, fourth chapter .
12. ↑ Gartner, p. 678.
13. ↑ Gartner, p. 680.
14. ↑ Theler / Boszhardt, p. 461.
15. ↑ Yerkes, p. 331, citing NC Sullivan: Dental caries and subsistence practices among the Effigy Mound people of the western Great Lakes . Paper presented at the 1984 Midwest Archaeological Conference, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.
16. ↑ Theler / Boszhardt, p. 451 ff.
17. ↑ Gartner, p. 671.
18. ↑ Gartner, p. 677.
19. ↑ Theler / Boszhardt, p. 460.
20. ^ Guy E. Gibbon: Cultural Dynamics and the Development of the Oneota Life-Way in Wisconsin . In: American Antiquity , Volume 37, No. 2 (April 1972), pp. 166-185, here p. 180.
21. ↑ Cockrell, Chapter Six .
22. ^ Josiah Priest: American antiquities and discoveries in the West . Hoffman & Whit, Albany / NY 1833, p. 279. in the Google book search
23. ↑ Representation according to Cockrell, eighth chapter .
24. ^ Cockrell, Introduction
25. ^ Effigy Mounds Administrative History, Interpretive Programs
26. ↑ Entry in the National Register Information System . National Park Service , accessed May 18, 2016.
27. ↑ Cockrell, Chapter Seventh .
28. ^ All information according to Lane A. Beck: Regional Approaches to Mortuary Analysis . Springer, New York 1995, ISBN 0306449315 , p. 106 f.
29. ^ William Green et al .: Effigy Mounds National Monument - Cultural Affiliation Report . In: Office of the State Archeologist, Research Papers 26 (3), 2001, p. 111.
30. ^ William Green et al .: Effigy Mounds National Monument - Cultural Affiliation Report . In: Office of the State Archeologist, Research Papers 26 (3), 2001, p. 114.
31. ^ Larry J. Zimmerman, Dawn Makes Strong Move and Dawn Sly-Terpstra: Appendix D: Consultation with American Indians and Other Members of Traditionally Associated Groups . In: Effigy Mounds National Monument Cultural Affiliation Report, Volume 1 , Office of the State Archaeologist, Research Papers 26 (3), 2001, pp. 277–288, here pp. 285 f.
32. ↑ Effigy Mounds National Monument General Management Plan
33. ^ National Park Service: Effigy Mounds National Monument - Nature
34. ^ Effigy Mounds NM: Things To Do
35. ↑ Daniel J. Stynes, Impacts of Visitor Spending on the Local Economy: Effigy Mounds National Monument, 2004 , Michigan State University, 2006 (online: Impacts ( Memento of the original dated December 30, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link became automatic inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. )