First Austrian Turkish War
The first Austrian Turkish War began in 1526/27 and reached its climax with the first Turkish siege of Vienna in 1529 and the year of the Turks in 1532. A peace was made in Constantinople in 1533 . It was about the possession of the Kingdom of Hungary . Since the following wars, especially in 1541/42, 1550 and 1568, were fought for rule over Hungary, the entire complex from the first invasion of the Ottomans in Hungary in 1521 to the death of Suleyman I in 1566 is often viewed as a coherent area of conflict. It is sometimes referred to as the Hungarian Civil War . The war between 1566 and 1568 is sometimes referred to as the second Austrian Turkish war .
After the death of the Hungarian King Ludwig II of Bohemia and Hungary in the Battle of Mohács against the Ottomans in 1526, there were two candidates for the royal throne: One was the Transylvanian magnate Johann Zápolya , supported by the Ottomans , the other the later Roman-German King and Emperor Ferdinand Archduke of Austria . Ferdinand tried to enforce his claims by force, whereupon Zápolya asked the sultan for help. This attacked the Austrian core countries in 1529 and 1532 without being able to defeat the enemy. Ferdinand went on the offensive in 1541 and 1542 to bring Hungary under his control. The result of these struggles was that Hungary was divided into three parts for a long time. In the west, the Habsburgs ruled in the so-called Royal Hungary , in Central Hungary ( Turkish-Hungary ) the Ottomans, and in Transylvania there was an Ottoman vassal state in the succession of Zápolyas . The later battles did not change anything in this basic constellation, although the Ottomans continued to gain ground.
Ottoman attack on Hungary
Sultan Suleyman I pursued a policy of expansion towards the west after his immediate ancestors had expanded the Ottoman Empire , especially in the east . His main destination was Austria. With Hungary he planned to reach an agreement first through diplomatic channels. In Hungary itself the new young King Ludwig II had ascended the throne shortly before. He did not play an independent political role. Instead, it was a plaything of the interests of different aristocratic groups.
However, posted Ottoman diplomats were mistreated or even killed. Thereupon Suleiman turned initially against Hungary.
The war had started in 1521. This year, after a four-week siege, Belgrade fell into the hands of the Ottomans, a strategically important gateway to Central Europe. Due to an attack by the Ottomans on Rhodes , the fight was interrupted for several years. However, the Ottomans switched off the Hungarian border fortifications.
Ludwig II could not expect any military help from Charles V either, as he was in the fight with France and Hungary was a minor problem for him. However, the rapprochement between Francis I and the Ottoman Empire from 1525 meant the danger of a two-front war. However, a formal agreement was only reached in 1536 as part of the so-called capitulations . In Hungary itself the king was as good as incapable of acting after the Reichstag had largely ousted him in 1525.
The actual advance of the Ottomans began in 1526. Suleyman I was allied with the Transylvanian voivod Johann Zápolya, who had ambitions for the Hungarian crown. The Ottoman army with allegedly 60,000–70,000 men broke out in April. The Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pascha marched a few days in front of the main army and captured Peterwardein on July 12th . The Hungarian contingent had little to counter the well-trained Ottomans. Only in June, when the first Ottoman troops were already near Belgrade, did the Hungarians begin to mobilize. Their army numbered about 28,000 men. Not only was there a lack of troops, but also a strong leadership. King Ludwig had asked his brother-in-law Ferdinand I in vain for help because he knew that the Hungarians could not win the war on their own. Only the Pope sent 4,000 mercenaries to support.
The Hungarians had decided to wait for the Ottomans in a position near Mohács . The main army of the Ottomans crossed the river Drava on a newly built bridge on August 22nd . The Hungarians were defeated in the battle of Mohács . At least 14,000 Hungarian combatants were killed. But the Turks also suffered similar losses. The Hungarian King Ludwig II was killed while fleeing the battlefield. The Ottomans took Ofen (Buda) on September 10th and looted the royal residence. On September 25th, Pest was set on fire. After that, the Ottoman army withdrew again via Belgrade. Ottoman troops were only left in the border fortresses.
Coronation campaign Ferdinand I.
Even if they did not occupy the country, they now had a decisive influence there. Her ally Johann Zápolya was able to be elected king on November 10th. However, according to a treaty of 1515, this claim was opposed to the claim of the king's brother-in-law, Ferdinand Archduke of Austria, to the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns, should Ludwig die without heirs. In Bohemia it was possible to enforce this claim. In Hungary he faced Zápolya. While this was supported by a large group of nobles, Ferdinand could only rely on the smaller court party. Ferdinand was crowned king in December 1526 by the members of this group of magnates . Zápolya was recognized as king among others by England, France, Poland, Venice and some German princes.
In order to enforce his claim, he led the so-called coronation campaign between 1527 and 1529. Margrave Casimir von Brandenburg had the supreme command of the core army, consisting of around 8,000 foot soldiers and 3,000 horsemen . The army reached Ofen on August 18, 1527 without major difficulties. After the death of the margrave, Niklas Graf Salm was appointed commander in chief. A decisive clash occurred on September 27 at Tokaj . As a result, Zápolya had to leave the country. Ferdinand was crowned in Stuhlweissenburg on November 2nd . He then returned to Vienna. The troops who remained behind achieved a victory at Szinye on March 8, 1528 . The remaining troops of Ferdinand left Hungary again.
However, the Habsburgs had already begun to set up the so-called military border in the 1520s . The border area was settled with personally free, defensive farmers, and permanently manned military bases were established. The military border served to secure Habsburg Hungary, but also the empire.
Imperial Turkish Aid
The successes of Charles V in the Italian theater of war made it possible in 1521 by the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire granted Romzugshilfe 1522 to support the fight against the Ottomans for Empire Turks help convert. The payment was, however, tied to conditions: The Hungarians had to provide reliable information about their share in the military cooperation. They could not do this. Moreover, the imperial estates only wanted to approve funds when the empire itself was in danger. It was therefore not until shortly before the war of 1529 that the funds approved in 1521 could flow in a significant amount.
The creation of a long-term "persistent Turkish aid" proved to be even more difficult. The imperial estates were of the opinion that the fight against the Ottomans was a matter for all of Christianity. They made approval dependent on the promise of the other European states or on Charles V's efforts to achieve peace in Europe. Without peace in Christendom, success over the Ottomans was hard to imagine. In the 1520s efforts to persist in helping the Turks did not go from place to place. In the run-up to the next dispute, Ferdinand asked the Holy Roman Empire for financial support at the Reichstag in Speyer . Lines of conflict in the empire, such as the denominational dispute, played an important role. Ferdinand had to admit that aid to the Turks and the question of religion were discussed together and not separately. At least urgent Turkish aid was decided. The troop recruitment made possible by this could no longer be used to protect Hungary, but it played a role in the siege of Vienna. Ferdinand also benefited from the fact that the Pope granted him quarters on intellectual possessions, tithes and other rights.
It was not until the Reichstag of Augsburg of 1530 that Turkish aid was put on a stronger basis. In addition to short-term help in the amount of double Romzug help, there was persistent help for a period of three years. The salary of the mercenaries was increased and the possibility was created to deploy the troops outside of the Reich territory. However, it wasn't until 1542 that the money was actually paid out. Until 1543, the Turkish Aid from 1522, the Urgent Turkish Aid from 1530, the Persistent Turkish Aid from 1530 and the Urgent Turkish Aid from 1541 were approved until 1543. Since 1543 the estates only provided funds, but no longer had any effect on the implementation. The so-called Roman months were the basis for calculation . At the time of Charles V, 73.5 Roman months came together with a total volume of 4 million guilders.
First Turkish siege of Vienna
Zápolya was able to strengthen his position again and defeat Ferdinand's supporters. Under the command of Hans Katzianer , Ferdinand had his troops deployed again in Hungary and occupied Ofen. When the troops had received no pay for months, mutinies and riots broke out. Thereupon Zápolya called on the Ottomans for support.
Suleyman I marched with his army from Constantinople in May 1529 and reached Belgrade in June. In vain did Ferdinand call for help to Christianity. Defense preparations were carried out with great vigor. The fortresses in the Habsburg-dominated part of Hungary were occupied by troops and fortifications in Lower Austria, in particular Wiener Neustadt and Vienna , were repaired. A special warning system with fire signals has also been set up.
The Ottomans reached Ofen on August 24th. Zápolya has now also been crowned king. From there, Suleyman I advanced in the direction of Vienna without significant resistance. The vanguard arrived at the city on September 21 and devastated the surrounding area. The main force with numerous guns arrived on September 27th. The army consisted of about 120,000-150,000 men fighting troops. Together with the entourage, the army was about 270,000 strong. In Vienna Niklas von Salm commanded the defenders until October 15, 1529. He commanded about 17,000 men. After the Ottomans had suffered great losses, the sultan had the siege broken off before the imperial relief army under the Count Palatine Friedrich appeared on the theater of war. This involved the retreating Ottomans in fierce battles, but without this having any major significance. The Ottoman army marched back to Constantinople.
Suleyman I had achieved the main purpose of the enterprise, to secure Zápolya rule in Hungary, even if it had not been possible to conquer Vienna. Zápolya had meanwhile submitted to the protection and suzerainty of the Ottomans.
Turkish year 1532
Ferdinand raised an army of about 10,000 men and reached Ofen at the end of October. The city was defended by around 3,000 Ottoman soldiers. The Austrian commander Wilhelm von Roggendorf began the unsuccessful siege of the city. Before the approaching stronger Ottoman army, he withdrew to Esztergom . During this time, the Ottomans carried out raids on Carniola . Meanwhile, on January 21, 1531, Ferdinand had signed an armistice with Zápolya, which was ultimately limited to one year. The Sultan also recognized the treaty.
After the deadline this began to renew the war. The Ottoman army left Constantinople in April 1532 and threatened Austria since August. The Reichstag in Regensburg decided on the establishment of the urgent Turkish aid, which was made possible in 1530. A total of 36,000 men could be mobilized. In addition, there were troops that Charles V had sent from Italy. Ferdinand managed to set up a large army of over 100,000 men to defend against.
Support came from the Reich and other countries. With a view to the opposing troops, the sultan decided against a second siege of Vienna and instead besieged Güns in vain . He withdrew to Hungary through the Vienna Basin and Styria . The only major battle occurred in the pursuit of Akinci units under Kasim Bey , who had devastated the surrounding area. On September 19, 1532, an Ottoman unit of about 10,000 men was formed near Leobersdorf and subsequently completely wiped out. The imperial army disbanded in early October because of the plague . There was therefore no counter-attack on the Ottomans in Hungary. The army also had no legitimation from the Reichstag for this.
The Ottoman incursions in 1529 and 1532 cost around 200,000 people their lives or freedom in Lower Austria and Styria. It took up to 40 years for the destruction to be removed.
Peace treaty and new controversy for the throne
A provisional peace treaty between Ferdinand I and Suleiman I was concluded in Constantinople in 1533. Both sides have recognized the respective areas of influence in Hungary. There were various arguments with Zápolya and his followers in the following years. In 1538 the ruler of Transylvania with Ferdinand I had the peace of Oradea close. In this Ferdinand I and Charles V recognized Zápolya as king and promised him help against the Ottomans. It was also agreed that after Zápolya's death, his Hungarian territory should go to Ferdinand. Zápolya made this agreement at a time when he was still without descendants. After he married the Polish princess Isabella Jagiellonica a little later , he declared the inheritance agreement invalid.
With a brief interruption due to a failed company by Katzinger in 1537, the peace lasted until 1541. Zápolya died in 1540. Contrary to the agreements, his little son Johann Sigismund was proclaimed king under the reign of his mother. This step was recognized by Suleiman II. This renewed the conflict of the throne in Hungary. The Reichstag in Regensburg granted urgent aid to the Turks. In return, the Habsburgs had to make concessions in the confessional conflict.
Ferdinand reacted with a renewed military engagement in Hungary. The imperial commander Wilhelm von Roggendorf besieged furnace with 20,000 men . The Habsburg troops were routed by the sultan's advancing army. The Sultan took possession of the furnace and appointed a governor. Since then Hungary has been divided into three parts. Ferdinand ruled a part, Eastern Hungary and Transylvania kept Johann Sigismund, the rest became Turkish. At times there seemed to be an understanding between the king's widow and Ferdinand. This seemed ready to leave Hungary to Ferdinand. The events sparked a great response in the empire. The situation was dangerous because shortly before the French King Francis I had started a new war. The Reichstag in Speyer approved funds for the Turkish war. The supreme command fell to the Elector Joachim von Brandenburg . In total, the imperial army was about 60,000 strong. The land troops were supported by 200 ships on the Danube . The army reached Pest at the end of September 1542. After a short siege, Ferdinand had to stop the operation. Behind this were the deteriorating relationships between Ferdinand and the widow Zápolyas. Another reason was typhus , which was rampant among the soldiers . A small part of the troops stayed behind in Hungary. In order to be able to support the soldiers, Ferdinand had to pledge his possessions in Swabia . The Sultan marches with the Ottoman army from Adrianople , conquered Gran on August 10, 1543 and took Stuhlweissenburg at the beginning of September.
Although the Sultan soon withdrew, this meant that his governor could bring large areas under his control in Ofen. As a result, Ferdinand hardly took any offensive actions, and Reichshilfe was limited to the defensive area. In 1545 a new armistice was signed. The peace was concluded in 1547 for five years. Ferdinand's sphere of influence was thus limited to western Hungary. He had to accept a tribute of 30,000 ducats to the Ottomans per year. The Ottomans divided their area into 15 sanjaks. The tripartite division of Hungary was thus established until the late 17th century.
Events between 1550 and 1568
In 1550, Transylvania asked Charles V for help against the Sultan. This sent an army into the country. In 1551 Suleiman responded with war. He left Timisoara besieged in vain. A year later it was possible to take the city. Also Lippa was conquered. The Habsburg armed forces under Erasmus von Teufel were defeated in 1552 in a skirmish with the troops of the governor Ali Pascha near Palast . The Ottomans then succeeded in conquering Szolnok . In contrast could Eger be held. The intervention of Elector Moritz von Sachsen was unsuccessful. The Ottomans incorporated the area around Temesvar into their domain.
As a result, there were no major actions. It was not until 1556 that the Ottomans attacked Szigetvár because numerous attacks on their territory had been carried out from there. They couldn't take the place because a relief army was approaching. The threat seemed so great that Ferdinand asked the empire for help. In fact, the Diets in Augsburg (1556/57) and Augsburg (1559) decided on comparatively high aid funds. However, these were not enough to secure the Hungarian possessions over the long term. In 1562 Ferdinand I made peace with the Sultan. He had to accept some territorial losses without the fundamental balance of power having changed, but the annual tribute to the Sultan was increased to 30,000 guilders.
The border with Transylvania remained uncertain, and numerous minor battles broke out. Johann II. Zápolya wanted to use Ferdinand's death in 1564 to improve his position against the Habsburgs. At first he was able to achieve military success. The new emperor Maximilian II sent an army under Lazarus von Schwendi . This penetrated deep into Transylvania. But this called the Ottomans on the scene as the protective power of Transylvania.
The now old Sultan Suleiman then wanted to go on the offensive again and planned, among other things, another attack on Vienna. The threat seemed so great that the Reichstag in Augsburg approved money to pay 8,000 horsemen and 40,000 foot soldiers. Ultimately, however, it was only possible to set up an imperial army of 40,000 men. The Ottomans operated from Temensvar and devastated the enemy territory. Villages were burned down and residents were killed or enslaved. The city of Gyula was conquered. The governor of Ofen also began forays across the Danube. The Habsburg troops succeeded in conquering the city of Veszprém and the Totis Castle . The governor was then executed. The Sultan left Constantinople with the main Ottoman army on May 1 and reached Belgrade in June. Since August 5th he began the siege of Szigetvár . Just before the city fell, Suleiman died. The main Ottoman army withdrew after conquering the city. The Reich troops were hardly used. On February 17, 1568, the new Emperor Maximilian II concluded a peace for eight years with Selim II in Constantinople. The emperor had to recognize the Ottoman possessions in Hungary and pay a tribute. The peace was extended several times. There were repeated raids and looting, but there was no major war until the beginning of the Long Turkish War in 1593.
Individual evidence
- ^ A b c Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Austria and the Ottoman Empire. A bilateral story , Vienna 1999 p. 75
- ↑ a b Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Austria and the Ottoman Empire. A bilateral story , Vienna 1999, p. 76
- ^ Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Austria and the Ottoman Empire. A bilateral story , Vienna 1999, p. 77
- ^ Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Austria and the Ottoman Empire. A bilateral story , Vienna 1999, p. 78
- ↑ Horst Rabe: Empire and religious split. Germany 1500–1600 . Munich 1989, p. 308.
- ^ Alfred Kohler: The Reich in the struggle for hegemony in Europe 1521-1648 . Munich 1990, p. 12f .; Alfred Kohler: Ferdinand I. 1503–1564. Prince, King and Emperor . CH Beck, Munich 2003, p. 210; Horst Rabe: Empire and split in faith. Germany 1500–1600 . Munich 1989, p. 166f.
- ^ Géza Fehér: Turkish miniatures . Leipzig and Weimar 1978, Commentary on Plate XVI
- ^ Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Austria and the Ottoman Empire. A bilateral story , Vienna 1999, p. 82
- ^ Alfred Kohler: The Reich in the struggle for hegemony in Europe 1521-1648 . Munich 1990, p. 13
- ↑ a b c d Alfred Kohler: The Reich in the struggle for hegemony in Europe 1521-1648. Munich 1990, p. 14
- ↑ Gertrud Gerhartl : The defeat of the Turks at Steinfeld 1532 (= military historical series, issue 26). Österreichischer Bundesverlag for Education, Science and Art, Vienna 1974, ISBN 3-215-73224-6 , p. 37.
- ^ Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Austria and the Ottoman Empire. A bilateral story. Vienna 1999, p. 96.
- ^ Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Austria and the Ottoman Empire. A bilateral story , Vienna 1999, p. 98
- ^ Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Austria and the Ottoman Empire. A bilateral story. Vienna 1999, p. 99.
- ^ Paula S. Fichtner: Terror and Toleration. The Habsburg Empire Confronts Islam, 1526-1850. Reaction Books, London 2008, ISBN 978-1-86189-340-6 , p. 35.
- ^ Alfred Kohler: The Reich in the struggle for hegemony in Europe 1521-1648 . Munich 1990, p. 15.
- ↑ a b c Horst Rabe: Empire and split in faith. Germany 1500–1600 . Munich 1989, p. 309
literature
- Gertrud Gerhartl : The defeat of the Turks on the Steinfeld: 1532 (= military historical series . Issue 26). Austrian Federal Publishing House for Education, Science and Art, Vienna 1974, ISBN 3-215-73224-6 .
- Alfred Kohler: The Reich in the struggle for hegemony in Europe 1521-1648. Munich 1990
- Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Austria and the Ottoman Empire. A bilateral story. Vienna 1999.
- Hans-Joachim Böttcher : The Turkish Wars in the Mirror of Saxon Biographies . Gabriele Schäfer Verlag Herne 2019, ISBN 978-3-944487-63-2 . Pp. 41-69.