History of urban development in China
prehistory
When agriculture spread in the Chinese lowlands in the Neolithic Age , a rural culture emerged, first in hamlets and later in villages. It was a few different cultures that had to protect themselves early on against the invasion of nomadic tribes from the north. This is how the first refuges and settlements with earth walls emerged. Society soon split into protectors and protectors, from which the feudal class developed. They began to build palaces and castles. Cities are often of considerable size at this time. Taosi was about 280 hectares and was surrounded by a wall that was up to 10 m wide at the foundations. Within the most walled area of the city there was another, smaller walled area, in which the ruling class probably lived and probably also temples or similar structures. A smaller town is Wangchenggang with about 30 hectares. Here, a rectangular area is surrounded by an earth wall that is about 10 m wide. In the northeast of the urban area, two smaller districts are walled again. It is unknown whether this smaller area was part of the larger ramparts or whether the different walls stood at different times.
Erlitou and the Xia Dynasty
At this point in time, the Xia dynasty cannot be clearly proven archaeologically. However, it is associated with the Erlitou site. It may well be that this was a capital of the Xia. Erlitou was an extremely large city with about 300 hectares, which was built between 1900 and 1550 BC. Was inhabited. In contrast to the Neolithic cities, there was no city wall. In the center stood a rectangular palace area, which was initially also unpaved, but was given a wall of rammed earth over time. There were various platforms within the district, on which public buildings and palaces were certainly once located. The palaces each consisted of a large courtyard, on the north side of which stood the actual palace, which was a simple, comparatively small, rectangular building. Further platforms stood outside the palace area. It may be residential buildings of the upper class.
Shang dynasty
The Shang already existed alongside the Xia dynasty and also built smaller residential cities during this time. Their capitals in chronological order were: Xibo, Ao, Xiang, Geng, Bi and Yin. Xibo, Ao and Yin have been excavated, the others have not yet been discovered and currently only exist in Chinese historiography.
Xibo (western Bo) was the first capital (1548-1399 BC) of the Shang, named after their previous residence, Bo. The city was surrounded by a wall that was oriented towards the cardinal points. Outside the city is the tomb of the first Shang king and his first minister. So far, seven gates have been found: three on the west and east sides and one in the north. They were connected by streets that formed a street grid. This grid was interrupted by a pedestal built with solid earth, on which the palace was located.
The second known city of the Shang dynasty is Ao (today Zhengzhou) (1399-1380 BC) It was laid out at right angles and had an area of 3 km². Its wall consisted of pounded layers, 8-10 cm thick.
The third excavated city is Yin or Yinxu (now Anyang ) from the 14th-11th centuries. Century BC Chr.
Zhou Dynasty
Beginning of the 1st millennium v. It seems that the traditions of the Shang dynasty continued in western Zhou. Little is known about their cities.
Eastern Zhou Dynasty (7th-6th centuries BC)
During this time, several small states emerged and with them the number of cities, some of which were excavated and which are therefore much better known as the Zhou dynasty cities. Xinzheng . The place was initially the capital of the Zheng and later became the capital of the Han dynasty . The city had an irregular plan because it was between two rivers. There were platforms for palaces within the 15 hm2 urban area. Workshops, but also cemeteries. Linzi is another example of a city from that time. The city layout is rectangular. In the south-west there is a city quarter delimited by a wall, which is approx. 3 km² in size and is interpreted as a palace quarter. This clear subdivision suggests strong social differences. The upper class seems to have protected itself here against possible civil unrest.
Hsin-t'ien (6th – 5th centuries BC) was a small town and probably the capital of Chin State. In the center were palaces that were secured by earth walls. The artisan quarters were outside.
At the same time, Lin-tzu was a relatively large city in Ch'i State, in what is now Shandong . 70,000 families lived here. The craftsmen's quarters were already within the city fortifications.
Qin Dynasty (221 BC - 206 BC)
Qin Shihuangdi unified China for the first time in 221 BC. Its capital at that time was Hsien-yang near Chang'an , later the capital of the Qin dynasty , today's Xi'an . Here, 145 destroyed palaces and pavilions, the conquered powers, were reconstructed. He settled here citizens from all parts of China to secure his influence.
Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220)
During the Han period, many of the city structures from the Warring States' era were taken over. The Han then built cities adapted to their administration.
There seem to have been more than 37,000 cities in the early Han period (206 BC - 9), while in the late Han period (25–220) there were only about 17,000. This is due to the centralization policy of the time, which brought the population to the suburbs.
Chang'an (now Xi'an ), the capital of the Han dynasty, was an almost square city, aligned with the cardinal points, with a circumference of 25.1 km. The enclosure was built in 192–189 BC. BC and had a height of 18 m and a thickness of 16 m. There were three gates on each side, each with three entrances.
The palaces and residences of the aristocracy were in the center and south of the city and took up about 2/3 of the total urban area. In the north-east were the residential quarters of the population, while in the north-west were the administration and the artisan quarters. The city's nine most important markets were located on the north-south main artery. Chang'an had 160 closed quarters, all of which were separated by right-angled streets. This division has mostly been retained since then. Luoyang was another major city of the Han Dynasty and follows a similar plan. The walled city area covered about 9.5 km². The city wall had 12 gates. The streets are laid out at right angles with a main street in the center of the city. The palaces took up about 1/3 of the urban area. These palace districts were walled.
Sui Dynasty (590-617)
With the relatively short-lived but significant Sui period, China began to experience strong population growth. The Sui dynasty was originally of Turkish origin, its rulers began with numerous reform projects, which, however, placed heavy demands on the country in terms of taxation and public works and thus brought the dynasty to fall prematurely. Changan (now Xi'an ) was again the capital of China and expanded together with Luoyang around 600 (the new Chang'an was built under the architect Yuwen Kai in the northwest of the old city). The beginning of the construction of the Imperial Canal between northern and southern China for the purpose of transporting grain and troops and the extension of the Great Wall to the west were other major construction projects of the period.
Tang Dynasty (618-907)
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Under Emperors Tang Taizong (626–649) and Tang Gaozong (died 683) the old capital Changan flourished again and became the largest city in the world at the time. Their population is estimated at around one million people. The city walls formed a rectangle of 9.6 by 8 kilometers. Twelve wide parallel streets led from east to west, nine streets led from north to south. From the great south gate and aimed a hundred and fifty meter wide main street in the direction of the "Imperial City", a rectangle within the rectangle that housed the government buildings and ministries. On either side of this enclave were the two square marketplaces. Behind the "Imperial City" was the Imperial Palace, and behind this - in front of the north gate, the palace garden. The city was divided into 112 residential districts, which were self-governing and sealed off from each other by walls at night. A heyday of handicrafts and luxury goods production was just as characteristic of the metropolis as its multiethnic population.
Song Dynasty (960-1279)
This period was characterized by strong economic growth and increasing interdependence. The individual regions were no longer economically self-sufficient. H. certain regions now stood for certain products (iron, sugar, rice, tea), and this had a positive effect on domestic trade and traffic. The cities grew, regardless of their respective political importance. Their population increased, triggered by the rural exodus and population growth. Walls separating individual parts of the city disappeared and shops, workshops and markets were no longer tied to prescribed locations. The gentry also allowed social legislation, which favored welfare (e.g. 1089 office for old people's homes, 1102 nursing office). The urban bourgeoisie (landowners, merchants) became wealthy, which stimulated luxury consumption.
Among the economic innovations should be emphasized: the increase in block and letterpress printing, the introduction of 1024 paper money, a further development in shipping (approx. 1090 use of the compass, 984 canal lock), 12th century increased use of the paddle wheel, deep drilling for brine and natural gas (up to 900 m), better military technology (gunpowder dated 1044) and more. Literature flourished in many areas (encyclopedias, technology, medicine, novels, architecture, religion, foreign countries) and, by analogy, there was an increase in public and private schools and libraries.
The migration of peasants to cities in the 12th century created a rich reservoir of labor. Up to 7,000 people worked in the state-run factories; and in private factories - in the fields of brick distilleries and lacquer and porcelain production - at least up to 1200 workers worked. However, these private manufacturers always worked alongside the large state manufacturers.
Yuan Dynasty (1280-1368)
This dynasty proclaimed by Kublai Khan was actually a foreign rule. Starting in 1264, the Great Khan gradually moved the Mongolian capital from Karakoram to Beijing and adopted the administrative practices of the Chinese and, to a certain extent, their culture. His politics, together with his change of residence, earned him the disapproval of a significant part of the Mongol nobility, but international trade flourished under the Pax Mongolica of Kublai Khan. In his travel report (" Il Milione "), Marco Polo passed on the admiring descriptions of Chinese cities from this period. In the oasis city of Shazhou, today Dunhuang , Marco Polo saw, according to his report, for the first time a large number of Chinese who had then settled in one of the largest Buddhist centers in China. The tour group then crossed the cities of Anxi , Yumen , Zhangye and arrived in 1275 in Shangdu ( Shang -tu) as their actual travel destination. It was there that Marco Polo allegedly met Kublai Khan in his summer residence. Kublai's empire then stretched from China to what is now Iraq.
As the alleged prefect of the Khan, Marco Polo claims to have roamed China for several years. His report names, among other things, the cities of Daidu and Xi'an , Kunming and Yangzhou , the then seat of the regional government. Harnesses for the Khan's army were made in the many craft workshops in this city. Marco Polo's favorite city was Quinsai, today's Hangzhou . He raves about the magnificent palaces and public hot baths as well as the port, where ships from all over Asia came in and unloaded spices, pearls and precious stones.
Ming Dynasty (1368-1643)
The first Ming Emperor Hongwu raised Nanjing again to the capital of China in 1368 and gave it the name Yingtian. In 21 years, around 200,000 workers built Nanjing into the largest city in the world at that time with an estimated population of just under half a million. The city wall, which is still largely preserved today, dates from this time. Nanjing achieved considerable prosperity at that time. In addition to the traditional textile industry, printing and shipbuilding have now also established themselves; At that time, Nanjing was the shipyard for the largest sailing ships of the Middle Ages and the home port of Admiral Zheng He's treasure fleet . From here his travels went to India, Arabia and Africa. After Emperor Yongle had moved the capital to Beijing ("Northern Capital") in 1421, he gave Yingtian its current name Nanjing for the first time, which can be translated as "Southern Capital".
After his accession to the throne, Yongle initially resided in Nanjing . There he had the Bao'en Temple with the famous porcelain pagoda built as the first major building project in honor of his mother . He renamed his old residence Beiping to Shuntian (obedient to heaven).
As early as 1406, Yongle announced that he would move the capital to the north. He renamed Shuntian in Beijing , the northern capital. The construction plans were extensive. The emperor found both the imperial palace of Nanjing and the old palaces of the Mongols to be too small and not representative. The entire inner city of the former Dadu of the Yuan khans was razed to the ground. Beijing should rise from scratch. As a representation of the world order, it comprised four districts that were nested in a square. In the center, the Purple Forbidden City was built, which was about twice the size of the old palaces. Followed by the imperial city, in which there were imperial parks, the western lake palaces and other residences for princes and officials. This was followed by the inner and outer residential towns for the normal population.
At the end of the Yongle government, Beijing and its outskirts already comprised around 350,000 residents. Since 1408, the emperor spent most of his time in Beijing personally overseeing the construction. He left his Crown Prince Zhu Gaozhi in Nanjing, who headed a provisional Regency Council there and took care of the day-to-day routine. Nanjing was officially relegated to a secondary residence in 1421 and had to give way to Beijing as the seat of government.
The decisive factors for relocating the capital were, on the one hand, that Yongle, actually a usurper , wanted to leave the region of Nanjing, as it seemed to him to be the least trustworthy. His nephew Jianwen had ruled in Nanjing and there were still forces working against him there. His old residence in the north was also his power base, where there were numerous powerful families who owed him the rise. On the other hand, the Mongol problem was still present. In distant Nanjing he was cut off from the events on the borders. Since Yongle was planning an offensive policy against the northern areas, he needed close proximity to the steppe and short reaction times for the army. In Beijing there were both domestic and foreign policy advantages.
Yongle also went down in history as one of the most enthusiastic emperors in China. In addition to the new palace district of Beijing, he had numerous large temples built in his new capital, including the Temple of Heaven for the sacrifice to the highest cosmic order and many more well-known buildings. In order to be able to supply Beijing with sufficient food from the south, Yongle had the Imperial Canal restored and expanded to reach the city. The vast quantities of goods that Beijing devoured soon made the canal again the main trade route of the empire.
Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)
The dynasty is, at least originally, to be addressed as foreign rule. As in the Yuan period, marriages between the Chinese and the Manchu rulers were forbidden, which also had consequences for urban development. The capital Beijing was divided into two parts, one part city for Manchu in the north and one for the Chinese in the south. Manchuria was closed to Han Chinese. However, the prohibition of mixed marriage was disregarded in particular by the Manchu elite. Even the Qing emperors accepted Han Chinese women as imperial concubines, and Emperor Kangxi already had one for his mother. The division of Beijing into two parts also became extremely permeable, as the inner (i.e. northern) city was strictly speaking reserved for members of the army and administrative staff of the Eight Banners . Most of the banner people were Chinese and not Manchu. Around 1700 more than 70% Han Chinese lived in the northern city of Beijing and the Manchus formed a clear minority, as far as one can still speak of real Manchus due to the marriage of the Han Chinese.
Towards the end of the dynasty, under the reign of the Dowager Empress Cixi , there were large representative building projects that contrasted with the real weakness of the empire. A New Summer Palace (Beijing) was built, for which funds were diverted that should have been used to build up the navy.
20th and 21st centuries
Massive urban changes took place in the first third of the 20th century, especially in cities under foreign influence, such as Hong Kong and Shanghai , which developed into commercial and service metropolises following Western models. In China itself, permanent unrest and the turmoil of the civil war, but also the armed conflict with Japan, hindered urban development. Temporary capital from 1912 and especially from 1927–37 Nanjing . After the founding of People's Republic of China by Mao Zedong on October 1, 1949, the communist government said Beijing back to the capital.
The expansion of the capital and the fight against centuries-old traditions subsequently had priority. Old temples and other religious institutions were destroyed or repurposed according to the Stalinist model. For example, the Temple of Wisdom in Beijing was converted into a wire factory and light bulbs were made in the Temple of the Fire God. In the 1940s, Beijing still had 8,000 temples and monuments; by the 1960s that number had shrunk to 150. The city walls of Beijing were also largely removed, and Tian'anmen Square was redesigned as a monumental parade ground. Due to inadequate housing construction work and massive influx from the countryside, there was a catastrophic shortage of urban living space and overcrowding of outdated buildings
Since the onset of the economic reform period in the 1980s, China's cities have been subject to an accelerated modernization process that is known as "Americanization". Office and residential high-rises, an explosively advancing mass motorization and the creation of new city centers (such as Shanghai's Pudong ) and satellite cities are also causing serious environmental problems. Shanghai is once again playing the pioneering role in the modernization of China and is making a name for itself as a location for the development of bio, IT and microelectronic technologies and the seat of numerous international financial institutions. However, Beijing and Shanghai also lead the way on overpopulation and environmental issues. Smog , noise and river pollution have reached dramatic proportions in China's cities. In 1996 Shanghai was declared one of the most polluted cities in the world. In July 2001, the International Olympic Committee declared Beijing the venue for the 2008 Summer Olympics . In this context, there was also a global awareness of the current problems in Chinese cities. As a countermovement to accelerated modernization, the current trend towards reconstructing historicism can be seen. The megacity Datong , a mining metropolis , is currently redeveloping the city center in the style of the Ming dynasty for mainly tourist and commercial reasons. The 6 billion euro project is intended to appeal to the financially strong middle class in particular. According to Western press reports, the reconstruction is only an approximate. 40,000 residents of the old town will be relocated, and luxury apartments will be built in the new old center with its historicizing backdrop architecture.
Individual evidence
- ↑ Gideon Shelach-Lavi: The Archeology of Early China , Cambridge 2015, ISBN 978-0-521-14525-1 , page 131
- ↑ Shelach-Lavi: The Archeology of Early China , p.131
- ↑ Shelach-Lavi: The Archeology of Early China , pp. 167-172
- ↑ Shelach-Lavi: The Archeology of Early China , pp. 270-271
- ↑ Shelach-Lavi: The Archeology of Early China , pp 271-272
- ^ FS Sit: Chinese City and Urbanism , 127-129
- ^ FS Sit: Chinese City and Urbanism , 129-131
See also
- Urban history
- History of china
- Historic capitals of China
- Table of Chinese units of measurement of different dynasties
swell
- Henri Stierlin: "Architecture of the World - China", ISBN 3-8228-9529-6
- Ernst Egli: "History of urban development" Vol. 1–3, Eugen Rentsch Verlag
- Victor FS Sit: Chinese City and Urbanism, Evolution and Development , Word Scientific, Singapore 2010 ISBN 978-981-4293-72-3
- Alfred Schinz: The Magic Square: History of Chinese City Planning , Axel Menges, Honolulu 2006, ISBN 3-930698-02-1
- Gideon Shelach-Lavi: The Archeology of Early China, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015, ISBN 978-0-521-14525-1
- Kwang-chih Chang: The Archeology of Ancient China . Fourth edition, Revised and Enlarged. Yale University Press; New Haven 1986, ISBN 0-300-03784-8
- Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky : China's megacities ; Vienna 2007
