ITER

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
ITER logo
ITER participant
The 35 countries participating in ITER
motto The way to new energy
Seat 13115 Saint-Paul-lès-Durance , France
General Director Bernard Bigot
founding October 24, 2007
Website iter.org
Aerial photo of the ITER site during the construction phase (2018)
Visualization of the ITER building in cross section
Plastic model of the centerpiece of the facility

ITER ( English for I nternational T hermonuclear E xperimental R eactor ; Latin the word means way , march or travel ) is an experimental nuclear fusion reactor and an international research project with the ultimate goal of electricity from fusion energy . The reactor is based on the tokamak principle and has been under construction at the Cadarache nuclear research center in southern France since 2007 .

The focus of research is on various methods and designs for plasma heating, diagnostics and control, and the testing of various blanket designs for incubating tritium . The plasma should burn for up to an hour, and the fusion power gained should be several times greater than the heating power used. Compared to its predecessor JET, ITER will be much larger and will be equipped with superconducting magnet coils. According to current planning (as of January 2020), a hydrogen plasma is to be generated in the plant for the first time in December 2025. From around 2035, the experiments will be more realistic due to the use of tritium, but also more difficult due to the neutron radiation.

If ITER and the materials research to be carried out in parallel at the International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility (IFMIF) shows that the tokamak construction principle can be expanded into the gigawatt range, a follow-up project called DEMO is to feed electricity into the grid and create a closed tritium cycle demonstrate.

ITER is developed, built and operated as a joint research project of the seven equal partners EU , which represents the 27 EU countries and Switzerland , the USA , China , South Korea , Japan , Russia and India . The USA temporarily withdrew from the project from 1998 to 2003, Canada has not been part of the project since 2004. In 2008, cooperation at expert level was agreed between the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the ITER project. France's ex-President Jacques Chirac described the project as the largest science project since the International Space Station .

function

ITER works on the tokamak principle. The coils that wrap around the ring-shaped vacuum vessel generate a strong magnetic field in the circumferential direction (toroidal field). Approx. 1 gram of deuterium - tritium gas is then admitted into the vessel, heated by one or more different heating techniques (see nuclear fusion reactor # plasma heating ) and thus brought into the plasma state. An electrical ring current, together with the coils, creates the helically twisted magnetic field that holds the plasma together. The electrons and ions move under the Lorentz force on narrow helical paths around the field lines . However, impacts with one another allow a drift across the field. Particle trajectories on the surface of the plasma end beyond a field constriction on divertor plates in the vicinity of pump openings. The divertor surfaces made of tungsten are the parts of the reactor that are most exposed to heat.

The fast neutrons released during the fusion reaction carry about 80% of the fusion power out of the plasma. The remaining 20% ​​of the fusion power occurs as recoil energy of the helium-4 atomic nuclei produced in the reaction ; it is given off to the plasma and contributes significantly to its heating. With a necessary for controlling external additive heating capacity of about 50 mega- watt (MW) "burns" the plasma on.

Details of the construction

CAD model of the reactor building with plasma vessel
Section through ITER. At the bottom right a person for size comparison.

Plasma volume

In nominal geometry, the plasma has a large toroidal radius of 6.2 m, a small radius of 2 m (that is, it extends from 4.2 to 8.2 m from the vertical axis of symmetry), is 6.7 m high and has a volume of 837 m³. These details relate to the area of ​​the magnetic field called the separatrix, outside of which the field lines do not enclose charged particles but direct them to the divertor.

Divertor

This is arranged under the torus and divided into 54 narrow 10-ton segments, which are individually assembled and replaced by robots. Water-cooled tungsten surfaces will be exposed to a heat flow of 1 to 2 kW / cm².

Blanket

Since ITER is a test facility and not a fusion power plant, its blanket essentially only consists of the "first wall", which delimits the plasma space and has to absorb the high heat and neutron loads. It is composed of 440 approximately 1 m × 1.5 m large, approximately 0.5 m thick segments with a mass of up to 4.6 tons each; the total mass is 1530 t. The segments are made of steel and copper and have interchangeable beryllium surface elements . The blanket surface is heavily stressed by particle bombardment. Not only does it threaten to melt, it also erodes through sputtering , and the plasma is contaminated by atoms from the surface. The higher their atomic number Z , the greater the energy losses due to bremsstrahlung . With Z = 4, beryllium hardly causes any radiation losses. It also has a high melting point and conducts heat well. In addition, high-energy ions of higher atomic mass penetrate deeply into a material with a lower atomic mass, and beryllium is suitable for holding them there.

In a later, larger fusion reactor, radiation losses would be less critical, even desirable, because their even distribution puts less stress on the wall than the sometimes concentrated particle bombardment.

When operated with deuterium and tritium, the blanket also has the task of decelerating and absorbing the neutrons. This heat flow is far greater than the heat flow from the surface. Further heat is generated by nuclear reactions in the blanket. The entire heat is dissipated with 6.2 t / s of cooling water at temperatures between 70 and 240 ° C, but not used to generate electricity at ITER. In the blankets of future fusion reactors, tritium is also to be incubated by multiplying the neutrons in beryllium or lead and reacting with lithium -6 to form helium-4 and tritium. Various designs for this are to be tested in a later phase of ITER.

Vacuum vessel

The vacuum vessel surrounds the plasma as a torus with a D-shaped cross-section with an inner width of 6 m. It protects the plasma against external contamination and stabilizes it passively through its electrical conductivity. This is less in the direction of the plasma flow so that it can be controlled from the outside. The vacuum vessel also protects the environment from contamination with radioactive nuclides (not just tritium) and reduces the neutron load on the superconducting coils (heating) and the structural materials (activation). For this purpose, there are around 50,000 steel parts totaling almost 1,700 tons in the cooling water between its double steel walls. These are also partially ferromagnetic in order to reduce the ripple of the toroidal field. Finally, the vacuum vessel also has the task of absorbing decay heat from the blankets if their water cooling fails.

Numerous rectangular openings ( ports ) allow access to the interior for the various heating and diagnostic equipment, for pumps and maintenance work. They are arranged in three rows, 18 at the top, 17 in the middle, 9 at the bottom. Three ports are provided for the installation of incubator test modules. The ports are provided with port stubs , which are closed as neutron-tight as possible by so-called port plugs . Diagnostic instruments e.g. B. sit partly in front of, partly embedded in water-cooled steel parts that make up the volume of the plugs. On the rear side, the plugs are attached vacuum-tight to the socket with flanges. On the outside, there are extensions, port extensions , which are connected vacuum-tight to openings in the surrounding wall, the cryostat, with elastic bellows to compensate for thermal expansion. Atmospheric pressure prevails in them.

The vacuum vessel has an outside diameter (without attachments) of a good 19 m and a height of 11 m. Without fixtures (blankets, divertors), attachments (plugs, port extensions) and filling (shielding parts, water) it has a mass of around 4000 t. In total, it weighs almost 9,000 tons on a ring-shaped platform at the bottom of the cryostat. In addition to weight, the greatest mechanical loads arise from gas pressure in the cryostat in the event of a large helium leak or electromagnetically when the toroidal field decreases rapidly (the regular build-up of the field takes two hours, however).

Do the washing up

ITER coil arrangement

Toroidal field coils

The toroidal field (TF) has a flux density of 5.3  T in the center of the plasma, in a ring 6.2 m from the center of the torus. It is generated by 18 TF coils which surround the vacuum vessel at a nominal distance of 50 mm (for mechanical tolerances and dynamic deformations). The maximum field strength of 11.8 T occurs directly on the coils. The superconducting material Nb 3 Sn , 23 t per TF coil, can withstand loads of 12 to 13 K to 13 T at working temperatures  . The coil has 134 turns; the working current is 69 k A , so the flow rate is 9.1 MA. The superconducting cable contains a central coolant channel, a copper component that takes over the current in the event of a local quench , an outer steel pipe and polyimide insulation. It is inserted into support profiles grooved on both sides and encapsulated with epoxy resin , a total of 110 t. However, the magnetic forces are much greater than their own weight. The energy in the toroidal field is 41 G J and decreases when the TF coils diverge. The corresponding radial force per TF coil is 403 M N , four times the weight of the Eiffel Tower . The upper and lower coil halves are spaced apart by 205 MN. Therefore, each TF coil has a sturdy housing with a steel cross-section of over 0.5 m², and the 18 TF coils are connected to one another with tensioning straps. The load is dynamic in cases of plasma instabilities or quenches. The design is based on the requirement that the toroidal field coils must withstand ten quenches without becoming unusable. Two TF reels, 2 × 298 t, are preassembled and heaved into place with a segment of the vacuum vessel.

Central solenoid, poloidal field and correction coils

Inside, the TF coils are straight and pressed together. They leave a cylindrical cavity for the central solenoid (CS). This is 18 m high and consists of six identical modules with 549 turns each. The maximum current is 45 kA, the field strength 13 T, the field energy 7 GJ. In order to change the field of the solenoid quickly, high voltages are required. Its insulation is tested to a dielectric strength of 29 kV . The solenoid “rests” on the inner feet of the TF coils, but its upper modules do not “voluntarily” - clamping elements prevent it from being lifted off. The solenoid, including structural elements, weighs 954 t.

The TF coils have flanges on the outside to support ring-shaped coils that encompass the whole array like circles of latitude. Together with the solenoid, they form the poloidal component of the magnetic field (PF) and - parallel currents attract - the cross-section of the plasma. There are six large PF coils with 45 kA and 18 correction coils with 16 kA. Unlike the TF coils and the solenoid, the weaker PF and correction coils are made of NbTi, the working temperature is 6 K. The correction coils statically compensate for manufacturing and assembly tolerances of the large coils and are used against plasma instabilities with a control frequency of 100 Hz . The vacuum vessel shields higher frequencies.

Coils in the vacuum vessel

On the inner wall of the vacuum vessel, still behind the blanket modules, coils are attached with which the plasma can be influenced at higher frequencies. There is an upper and a lower VS coil ( Vertical Stability ) parallel to the PF coils and 27 ELM coils, three per vessel segment. These coils are normally conductive and have a total mass of 7 tons.

Pellet injectors

ITER pellet injectors

Pellets made from frozen gases are shot into the plasma with gas pressure - a gas jet alone would not get far. ITER will use three different types of pellet injectors. One is used to refill fuel. For this purpose, deuterium and tritium are shot alternately or as a mixture in the form of short cylinders with a few millimeters in diameter close to the center of the plasma several times per second. Small ELMs are regularly triggered against harmful large ELMs by bombarding the surface of the plasma with very small D 2 pellets. Large neon pellets (20 to 50 g) are designed to protect against thermal runaway and runaway electrons with reaction times of 20 and 10 ms.

Cryostat

The cryostat is a kettle-shaped vacuum vessel which, with a diameter and height of 29 m, also encloses the coils. It is installed in four parts. At 1250 t, the base plate is the heaviest single part. The cryostat is evacuated , because otherwise the helium-cold coils would have to be isolated individually, both because of the conduction of heat through convection and against the condensation of gases. The airtight seal to the outside is also a second barrier against the escape of tritium. The cryostat has numerous large openings with inwardly directed nozzles that enclose the nozzles of the vacuum vessel.

Cooling supply

The superconductors are cooled with helium, at high pressure and an inlet temperature of 4.5 K. This condition is supercritical - the density is slightly lower, the viscosity much lower than with liquid helium under normal pressure (boiling point 4.15 K). The superconducting cables for the TF, CS and PF coils have a central cooling channel with a flow rate of 8 g / s per coil. The structural material is also cooled, here the flow is a few kilograms per second. The heat output to be dissipated comes from neutrons during fusion operation (at 500 MW fusion power approx. 14 kW), before and after from eddy currents in the structural material (for a short time much more, but also 10 to 20 kW on average).

Also cooled with liquid helium are cryopumps, which ensure the high vacuum in the vacuum vessel and in the cryostat and, especially in the area below the delimiter, recover deuterium and tritium. The total available cooling capacity at the 4.5 K level is 65 kW.

With gaseous helium at a temperature level of 80 K, heat shields are cooled, which protect colder parts from heat radiation. 1300 kW cooling capacity is available at this temperature level.

Power supply

The energy requirement for the cooling systems, including the circulation pumps for the water cooling circuits, accounts for around 80% of the approximately 110 MW that the entire system permanently needs during the operating phases. During the plasma pulse, the demand increases to up to 620 MW for up to 30 seconds. The power is drawn from the public network. For this purpose, France has installed two redundant 400 kV lines to the network node at Avignon 125 km away, including switchgear . The power transformers come from the USA and China. The short-term standard requirement of 300 to 400 MW requires close cooperation with the network operator RTE .

Research goals

Time schedule

In the first few years, the plant is to be operated with a plasma made from normal hydrogen and helium without any fusion reactions. Many purely plasma-physical questions can be researched in this way without having to accept the contamination of the interior of the vessel with tritium and the activation of materials. The use of a deuterium-tritium mixture is only intended for the verification of the net energy gain and the testing of Brutblanket modules.

Plasma stability

The charged particles move helically around the magnetic field lines (gyration). However, these are not unchangeable at the densities required for the desired fusion performance (minimization of the field energy for a given flow), but the plasma acts mechanically back on the field. Plasma instabilities occur when many particles synchronize in their movement. Particles couple with each other not only via the oscillations of the field lines, but also electrostatically via space charges. Resonances ensure an effective coupling . Because of the non-linearity of the couplings, frequencies do not have to be (approximately) the same, but integer ratios are sufficient. The following frequencies play a role: the gyration frequencies of electrons and ions and the orbital frequencies of electrons, ions and plasma waves around the small and large torus circumference. A closed solution is not possible, and the numerical solution is inefficient because it is a rigid initial value problem . Not only is the frequency range enormous, but also the necessary spatial resolution. Therefore, heuristic suggestions for stabilizing the plasma are implemented in complex experiments and tested in practice.

Edge-Located Modes (ELMs) are one type of plasma instabilities that are extremely disruptive in the operating range of fusion reactors based on the tokamak principle ( H mode ). In a fraction of a millisecond, loop-shaped bulges are formed, removed similar to the protuberances on the sun's surface. The time and spatial concentration (<1 ms, <1 m) of an eruption can melt the blanket surface, and repeated ELMen means enormous losses of magnetic and thermal energy and particles for the plasma. Various approaches are being tested to suppress ELMs or at least limit their effects (operation in ELMing H mode ). Most methods require the observation of plasma parameters with high temporal resolution and rapid reactions such as current changes in local coils, irradiation of incoherent magnetic energy (noise power) in the frequency range of the gyration of the ions and injection of hydrogen pellets .

power

An approximately 10-fold increase in the heating power used, i.e. a fusion power of around 500 MW, should be achieved. For ITER to be considered successful, this state must remain stable for 400 seconds. In another operating mode, burning times of up to one hour are provided with a power boost of at least 5. For a short time and with a lower heating power, a power boost of over 30, as provided for commercial reactors, is to be tested. The research at ITER on the burning time of the plasma is being prepared , among other things, at the ASDEX upgrade .

Location

ITER (France)
Paris plan pointer b jms.svg
Location of Cadarache, France

A location for the ITER has been discussed since 2001. Location applications came from France, Spain, Japan and Canada . Until 2003 there was also an unofficial German application with the former nuclear power plant "Bruno Leuschner" Greifswald in Lubmin near Greifswald . This would have set up the facilities for the world's largest tokamak experiment in the immediate vicinity of the construction site of the world's largest stellarator experiment . The ITER-Förderverband Region Greifswald under the leadership of the former Prime Minister Alfred Gomolka submitted a complete location application to the state government of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania in 2002. However, the application was rejected by the EU because the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania was not entitled to apply as a region, and the federal government rejected an application for reasons of cost. In the summer of 2003, Federal Chancellor Gerhard Schröder withdrew the former Chancellor Helmut Kohl's promise to apply for the ITER site.

In 2005 France with its traditional nuclear research center in Cadarache and Japan with Rokkasho competed for the location. While the USA, Japan and South Korea preferred Rokkasho as a location, the European Atomic Energy Community, the People's Republic of China and Russia voted for Cadarache. In November 2004 the EU Council of Ministers decided unanimously for EURATOM to build ITER in Cadarache, if necessary without the participation of Japan, South Korea and the USA. Japan was granted special conditions if the reactor was to be built in Europe, whereupon Japan withdrew its application. On June 28, 2005, the participating states jointly decided to build the reactor in France, which committed itself to extensive investments in infrastructure such as roads, power supply, data lines and apartments for the future researchers and their families.

financing

On November 21, 2006, the project participants signed the final contract in the Élysée Palace in Paris, which also regulates the financing of the construction. In addition to the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM), participating states are China, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea and the USA. The contract came into effect on October 24, 2007. To compensate for the choice of a European location, Japan was promised a share of at least ten percent of the orders to equip the reactor and the funding of Japanese research from EURATOM funds .

During the construction phase, the European Union or EURATOM 5/11 or 45% of the total costs. France contributes 40% of this, corresponding to 2/11 of the total costs. The other six project partners each bear 1/11 or 9% of the total costs and thus the remaining cost share of 6/11. Part of this is provided by each party as a contribution in kind, which must be provided regardless of the final costs of procurement and delivery. EURATOM bears 34% of the costs of operation and deactivation. Switzerland pays the largest part of its financial contributions for the ITER project to the EU under the agreement on scientific cooperation between Switzerland and the EU signed on December 5, 2014. The contribution made by Switzerland to the construction of ITER until 2014 amounts to CHF 183 million.

The construction should initially cost a good 5.5 billion euros (5.896 billion euros in 2008 prices). Already in June 2008 there were increasing voices announcing a significant increase in costs. In September 2008, the deputy ITER director Norbert Holtkamp declared at the 25th symposium on fusion technology in Rostock that the originally planned costs would increase by at least 10 percent, possibly even by 100 percent. This is due to the sharp rise in prices for raw materials and energy as well as expensive technical developments.

In May 2010 the European Commission announced that, according to a current cost estimate, its share in the construction costs will triple from the previously planned 2.7 billion euros to 7.3 billion euros. The EU then capped the EURATOM funds at 6.6 billion euros. It wants to cover additional costs by reallocating the agricultural and research budget.

While the ITER organization does not provide any cost estimates, according to a current worst-case scenario by the DOE, the US share could rise to 6.9 billion US dollars, which would correspond to a further tripling of the costs.

Project history

Initiation by the Soviet Union

Former logo

In talks with the presidents of France and the USA, François Mitterrand and Ronald Reagan , a proposal by the Soviet head of state Mikhail Gorbachev decided to collaborate on nuclear fusion research and build a reactor together. The planning began in 1988 at the German Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics and in 1990 led to the first draft of the experimental reactor. By 1998 a draft (ITER I) with the key data 8.1 m large torus radius and 1500 MW fusion power was worked out.

ITER contract

After the original design was converted into a smaller (500 MW), cost-reduced version of ITER with lower technical requirements, the participating parties gave the go-ahead for the construction of ITER on June 28, 2005 after long negotiations. The decision includes the construction of a test reactor in Cadarache in southern France for a total of almost 5 billion euros. The operating costs over the planned lifetime of the reactor of 20 years would be similarly high. On November 21, 2006, the ITER contract was signed by the seven partners in Paris with the participation of the then French President Jacques Chirac. The first meeting of the ITER Interim Council took place at the same time. The treaty came into effect on October 24, 2007, 30 days after it was ratified by the last party, China.

organization

Each of the seven partners sets up its own national organization, which has the task of fulfilling the contractual obligations of the respective country towards ITER. For the European Atomic Energy Community, this task falls to the newly founded agency Fusion for Energy - The European Joint Undertaking for ITER and the Development for Fusion Energy , based in Barcelona .

On the German side, the Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (IPP) in Garching near Munich, the Institute for Plasma Physics (IEK-4) at Forschungszentrum Jülich and various KIT institutes are involved in the project . Further scientific centers are in San Diego (USA) and Naka (Japan).

The supervisory body (IC, ITER Council ) has its seat in Moscow .

The central management (IO, ITER Organization ) with 500 direct employees and 350 external employees resides in the village of Saint-Paul-lès-Durance near the construction site. Together with the national organizations there are 2000 employees.

Every two years the management is subjected to an external evaluation. The result of the management evaluation by Madia & Associates in 2013 was so devastating that the ITER organization wanted to keep the report under lock and key. The New Yorker published the executive summary of the report. The ITER organization points to the project partners: Management would be made more difficult by the fact that each of the seven project partners, out of consideration for the domestic industry, prefers to manufacture and deliver parts than to transfer money. In tough negotiations, development and production orders would be broken up, with the risk that the parts would not fit together during assembly.

Construction progress

June 2018: The tokamak pit is closed with a temporary roof so that installations can be carried out inside.

Preparations for construction began at the beginning of 2007. In 2009 the building site was flat on 42 hectares. In 2011, the construction pit for the main complex was dug ( Seismic Pit , 130 × 90 × 17 m) and the shell of the first auxiliary building, the more than 250 m long Poloidal Field Coils Winding Facility , was completed. The five largest of the ring-shaped coils for the poloidal magnetic field are wound in it with great delay. The machines for this were only delivered, assembled and tested with a copper conductor in 2016. In 2012, the 1.5 m thick foundation was poured in the Seismic Pit . In 2013 and 2014, the 1.5 m thick floor slab was manufactured on 2 m high, vibration-damping plinths, which is intended to support the reactor building and the buildings adjacent to the north and south for tritium handling and plasma diagnostics in an earthquake-proof manner. The construction of the 7-story building took a good five years as planned. In 2014, the control and administration center was moved into and the temporary cryostat assembly hall was built, in which the four 30 m large and 600 to 1250 ton heavy parts of the cryostat have been assembled from 54 individual parts supplied by India since 2016, initially the floor and until July 2019 the lower cylinder piece. The first TF coils were wound and tempered in Italy in May 2016 and in Japan in February 2017. At the end of June 2017, the first parts of one of two Sector Sub-Assembly Tools (SSAT) arrived from Korea. With these assembly devices, each 22 m high and weighing 800 tons, the nine segments of the vacuum vessel in the assembly hall next to the tokamak pit are equipped with heat shields and two toroidal field coils each. At the end of March 2020, the bridge crane between the assembly hall and the tokamak pit was ready for use. The assembly of the reactor could thus begin on July 28, 2020, for which 4 12 years are set.

Delays in the schedule and cost increases

The schedule for the construction of the production facilities and the reactor had to be revised several times ( “one year delay for each year of the project” ) and the planned costs had to be revised upwards. Originally, the plant was supposed to cost 5 billion euros and start operation in 2016. A short time later, 2019 and 15 billion euros were assumed. At the end of 2015, General Director Bernard Bigot, who took office at the beginning of 2015, admitted that a first plasma could not be ignited until 2025 at the earliest and that the costs would rise by a further 4.6 billion euros. The DOE thought 2028 was more realistic. In June 2016, Bigot presented a detailed plan of how the earlier date could be kept by changing the target: The three main heating systems should only be installed afterwards, alternating with relatively short experimentation phases with light hydrogen, and DT operation in 2035 kick off. Further delays would make the supply of tritium more difficult, which comes from heavy-water-moderated nuclear fission reactors that are still running, but which decays with a half-life of twelve years.

See also

  • Stellarator (different implementation principle of magnetic confinement)
  • Inertial fusion (without magnetic confinement)
  • JT-60SA (fusion reactor, which will complement ITER with its research results)

literature

  • Daniel Clery: ITER's $ 12 Billion Gamble . Science 314, 2006, pp. 238-242, doi : 10.1126 / science.314.5797.238 .
  • Rüdiger von Preuschen-Liebenstein: International ITER fusion energy organization: pioneer of energy generation through nuclear fusion . atw 2006, pp. 622-625.
  • N. Holtkamp: An overview of the ITER project . Fusion Engineering and Design 82, 2007, pp. 427-434, doi : 10.1016 / j.fusengdes.2007.03.029 .

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  47. iter.org: annotated photo album from the major construction site .
  48. iter.org: On-Site Fabrication: cryostat. Sept. 30, 2019.
  49. iter.org: First coil package in Europe completed . 25th Nov 2017.
  50. iter.org: First coil package completed in Japan . Nov 25, 2017.
  51. iter.org: ITER's largest tool can ship . 15th May 2017.
  52. ITER Org .: Vacuum Vessel Sector Sub-Assembly tool YouTube video, November 13, 2014.
  53. iter.org: First crane access to the tokamak building. March 28, 2020.
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  55. Q≥10 - This formula is supposed to solve the energy problem of mankind
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  58. Fusion For Energy (F4E) The Governing Board: Annual and Multi Annual Program 2019-2023. December 12, 2018.
  59. ^ Richard J. Pearson et al .: Tritium supply and use: a key issue for the development of nuclear fusion energy. Fusion Engineering and Design 136, 2018, doi: 10.1016 / j.fusengdes.2018.04.090 (free full text).

Web links

Commons : ITER  - collection of images, videos and audio files
  • ITER. The ITER Organization, accessed on January 28, 2020 (English, official homepage of the project).
  • ITER video. ITER Construction Video, accessed on December 17, 2013 (film about the construction of ITER).
  • Participation in ITER. Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science V., accessed on January 28, 2020 .
  • Research for ITER. Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, accessed on August 3, 2008 .
  • Documents collected by Prof. McCray on the early phase of ITER (1979–1989) can be viewed in the EU Historical Archives in Florence.

Coordinates: 43 ° 42 ′ 32 "  N , 5 ° 46 ′ 42"  E