Cultural area desert
The Desert Cultural Area is one of 17 cultural areas in Australia . It is home to 42 Aboriginal tribes who are grouped together as a culturally similar unit and which differ in their way of life from Aborigines in the surrounding cultural areas. The cultural area was named "Desert" because it is located in the arid parts of the country with the Simpson Desert , the Gibson Desert , the Great Sand Desert and several smaller deserts.
The living conditions in the desert caused differences to other cultural areas: for example in terms of food, the frequency with which the camp was changed, and the size of the areas that a tribe roamed. Even within the cultural area there were differences, especially between the Western Desert and the Central Desert around Alice Springs : Since the living conditions in the Western Desert were harsher than in the relatively water-rich center, local tribes tended to migrate in smaller groups over longer distances. There are also linguistic differences between the Western Desert languages and the other languages of the cultural area.
Despite the differences in Aboriginal culture in different cultural areas, there are also many things in common with Aborigines in other cultural areas: a predominantly nomadic way of life as hunters and gatherers ; Stone tools but not metalworking; a spiritually complex life centered on dream time and totems ; a structured kinship system that goes hand in hand with clearly defined marriage rules and responsibilities for the country.
The settlement of the area by the whites took place about 100 to 150 years later than in most other parts of Australia - that is from about 1870, sometimes not until 1930 - yet the encounter with the whites was again characterized by dispossession of the Aborigines; there were violent clashes and attempts to assimilate the Aborigines and to let them settle in localities. It was not until the 1970s that Aborigines got large parts of the land back due to new laws and began to move away from larger settlements again in the 1980s in the Outstation Movement . As the desert was not settled by the whites until later due to the inhospitable conditions, the traditional culture and language is still partly preserved today, whereas knowledge about the traditional life of the local Aborigines has been lost, especially in southeast Australia and Tasmania .
Demarcation
In the original proposal for cultural areas in Australia from 1976, the Western Desert was an independent cultural area; the Central Desert - geographically largely identical to the Red Center - belonged to the Eyre cultural area , as the anthropologist Nicolas Peterson used the course of the main waterways as the basis for dividing the cultural areas. He justified this classification with the fact that the spaces between the watercourses represent natural barriers: This leads to people having a lively social and cultural exchange within an area and therefore becoming more similar, whereas the exchange between the areas is less and therefore greater differences form. In the meantime, the Western Desert and Central Desert have been merged, as drought prevails in both the Western Desert and the Central Desert and thus has a decisive impact on living conditions.
The desert cultural area comprises around 40 percent of mainland Australia; the largest diameter is a good 2000 km. Large parts of Western Australia , the Northern Territory , the northwest of South Australia and a small part of Queensland are located in this cultural area. It is the largest area in terms of area, but has the lowest population density with 0.05 inhabitants / km 2 .
There are only a few permanent water points; they are mainly found in the hilly regions around the MacDonnell Ranges , near Uluṟu and Kata Tjuṯa and along the rivers, especially on the Finke River , which has some water holes on the surface even in dry times. In the Central Desert there was also access to the water reservoir of the Great Artesian Basin . In addition to the drinking water supply, the drought had a decisive influence on the food supply: There were only a few larger hunted animals such as kangaroos and large emus ; lizards , snakes and witchetty maggots were the main sources of protein . Women collected seeds of various plants like the mulga , which were processed into a kind of flour and baked. Bush tomatoes and the fruits of trees, such as the bush plum , were and are also part of the bush food .
history
prehistory
The Kimberley region in the northwest of the continent is considered the starting point for settlement in Australia. The continent's inland deserts were thought to have been populated directly by the Kimberley region about 35,000 years ago during a warmer period of the last Ice Age, when Australia was connected to New Guinea by a land bridge through this region and formed the Sahul continent .
The artefacts that date from different times and that provide archaeologists with indications of the settlement of the desert include, above all, those made of stone: spearheads and axes are known from all periods of time. The early specimens are only carved, the later ones also sanded; In some cases, fastening grooves were also incorporated.
An excavation site that shows a permanent settlement of the deserts of Australia at this early point in time is Puritjarra, 75 km west of the MacDonnell Ranges . Stone tools and ocher were found in Puritjarra in 1986 , which were determined to be 35,000 years old by thermoluminescence and 32,400 years by radiocarbon dating . From the number of artefacts in the stratigraphic layers, archaeologists read that Puritjarra - like other similar excavation sites - was used less often in the period from about 22,000 years ago to about 13,000 years ago. This is explained by the high drought during the last maximum of the Ice Age, the Young Pleistocene , and the resulting lower population density in the area. Only after the layers of the last 6,000 years are there a high number of traces of human settlement again, including for the first time axes with detention and stones for grinding seeds; these millstones were not transported, but remained firmly in one place.
Two other scientifically well-described excavation sites are Puntutjarpa and Serpents Glen , which are located in hilly areas in the Gibson Desert. Here again evidence of early settlement was discovered, but no finds from the time of the particularly dry maximum of the Ice Age. Only in the Holocene were these places inhabited again.
Overall, archaeologists believe that the entire desert in the period from 30,000 BP was settled to 35,000 BP, from about 24,000 BP, however, was again deserted, apart from two refuges with an adequate water supply: the MacDonnell Ranges and to the southwest in the Warburton Ranges in Western Australia. All areas have only been inhabited again for about 10,000 years; however less dense than before.
Linguists, on the other hand, believe that the Western Desert was "relatively recently" - that is, in the last 1000 years - settled from the west coast until these Aborigines met the Arrernte tribe : The Western Desert Language seems to have its origin near the west coast and shares only about 20% of the vocabulary with the Arrernte language . Linguists see support in a work on blood group genetics of the Aborigines, which establishes a strong difference between Aborigines of the Arrernte and the Western Desert and sees in this the meeting of two different populations. This settlement theory cannot be derived from tools and rock carvings; significant differences between the regions are not described.
Based on the excavation sites, a more sedentary lifestyle is suspected for the past 1000 to 1500 years, with groups of up to 200 people from different tribes meeting in base camps near reliable water points. Above all, ceremonies were held and trade was carried out, in which, for example, mussel shells were exchanged from the north coast of Australia and thus found their way to South Australia. A well-known meeting place is Therreyererte in the Simpson Desert; Aborigines of different tribes came together here to perform initiation rites after the rainy season, when there was plenty of water and food . Outside of such large encounters, however, Aborigines wandered in small groups of 5–20 people along less abundant watering holes, mostly camping for two or three days, in individual cases up to three weeks, and using the respective food sources in the area.
First reports from Europeans
Few whites came to the center of the continent until 1930. Even before the Europeans, however, diseases brought in from outside came to the desert: the smallpox epidemic of 1789 , which was presumably brought in by seafarers from Makassar in Indonesia , is said to have reached the center, as did the subsequent epidemics of 1820, 1860 and 1870. Because of that The low density of settlements in the desert cultural area is said to have been less fatal than in other parts of Australia.
The first expedition by Europeans was from August 1844 to December 1845 under the direction of Charles Sturt , in which John McDouall Stuart also took part. The aim was to find a postulated inland sea. In 1848 the German explorer Ludwig Leichhardt tried to discover a route from Queensland to Perth and went missing. Based on his experience, Stuart undertook a number of other expeditions from 1858 to 1862, initially to discover land for ranchers; later to find a route for Charles Todd's requested Trans-Australian Telegraph Line from Adelaide to Darwin . For the most part, explorers and Aborigines avoided each other, so that there are few reports of encounters. Stuart describes several times in his book that he saw fire, burnt grass and smoke, as well as natives who avoided an encounter:
“When we reached the top of the ridge, where we had previously seen their camp and several fires, we could no longer see any of them, neither smoke, fire nor anything else: it was now almost dark. I came to the conclusion that they had left, as natives generally do, because they had seen us that morning. "
Other explorers such as William Gosse , Ernest Giles and Peter Warburton also described in detail every encounter with Aborigines in the 1870s, some of whom, especially with large groups, were hostile: Here the Aborigines attacked the researchers with spears.
Colonization by whites, first scientific work
The construction of the telegraph line took place in the years 1870/71. With the establishment of the telegraph station in what is now Alice Springs, the first permanent settlement of the cultural area by white settlers began; the first established ranchers from South Australia increasingly claimed areas along the telegraph line and especially on the Finke River and one of its tributaries, the Hugh River. Aborigines worked on these farms as drovers and repaired fences, in return they received food and beverages; especially flour, tea and tobacco. The first mining boom began in 1886, when rubies were supposedly found east of Alice Springs. A gold rush began in 1887. The prospectors are known to have entered into partnerships with Aboriginal women, unlike the ranchers. By this time at the latest, sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis and gonorrhea should have spread among Aborigines in the desert. Because these diseases cause infertility , most of the subsequent decline is attributed to Aboriginal numbers.
The first explorers to study Aboriginal culture were Walter Baldwin Spencer , who came to Alice Springs on the Horn Expedition in 1894 , and Francis James Gillen , a telegraph station master in Alice Springs. Along with Carl Strehlows , Moritz von Leonhardis and Theodore George Henry Strehlows, her work on the Arrernte is one of the most extensive documentaries on Aboriginal culture.
The area was further developed from 1880 with the construction of the Great Northern Railway , which finally led from Adelaide to Alice Springs from 1920.
Lifestyle change, resistance
Until about 1930, the Aboriginal way of life in central Australia was largely undisturbed, as there were still few whites. That changed, however, when cattle breeding spread further: Theoretically, the Aborigines were still allowed to hunt on the lands and visit watering holes, but the livestock industry changed the ecology permanently; In 1970 it was found that 14 of the 29 native mammal species had become extinct; in the case of plants, too, about half of all species are no longer present. As before in other parts of Australia, Aborigines killed cattle to feed, but also to express their protest and resistance to the settlement. A high point of these disputes, which were about food on the one hand, and the enforcement of white legal understanding on the other, was the Coniston massacre of 1928, in which 31 Warlpiri , Anmatyerre and Kaytetye were probably killed.
In the deserts of the west, apart from encounters on the Canning Stock Route , a herd path, and during the construction of the Rabbit-Proof Fence, there was no contact with whites until the 1960s.
Mission stations, reservations, partial settlements, cultural preservation
Aborigines often sought refuge in mission stations created for them and tried to get food and medical care there. In particular, a severe drought from 1926 to 1930 moved many Aborigines to abandon their traditional life, join the missions and lead an increasingly sedentary life, with food and shelter in exchange for work in ranching.
Aside from the missions, Aborigines could also find shelter in reservations set up by the Aboriginal Protection Boards . As in most missions, they were encouraged or urged to give up life as hunter-gatherers and adapt to Western ways of life.
Both the missions and the reservations are very controversial because, on the one hand, they offered food, medical care and schooling, on the other hand, for example, children of mixed connections, i.e. whites with Aborigines, were forcibly accommodated in them in order to assimilate them. In addition, the close coexistence of many people promoted the spread of diseases: Typhus , tuberculosis , diphtheria , influenza and measles found an ideal breeding ground here and often led to death.
As the first mission in the cultural area, Lutheran missionaries set up the Finke River Mission in today's Hermannsburg in the area of the Western Arrernte . It is considered one of the best and most successful in Australia because on the one hand it was one of the most enduring with an active period from 1877 to 1982 and on the other hand it helped to preserve the culture of the Western Arrernte . This survived not only in the work of Pastor Carl Strehlow and his son, the ethnologist Theodore Strehlow, who published extensive works on language and myths, but is still alive today. In contrast, the language and traditions of the Eastern Arrernte have hardly survived as they were exposed to the advance of the white settlers without protection.
The Ernabella mission , active in the Pitjantjatjara area from 1937 to 1974 , was also considered exemplary. The mission focused on medical care and school education; the Pitjantjatjara were free to choose whether to join the Christian faith.
The Jigalong Mission, which was operated from 1946 to 1969 and is located on the western edge of the Small Sand Desert , is an example of the excesses of missionary endeavors, in which missionaries made it their goal to completely shut down indigenous culture through a Christian upbringing replace: Jigalong was founded by members of the Apostolic Church who believed that Aboriginal children of the devil, lost "in great darkness and deep in sin". The Aboriginal children were taken out of family care and placed in dormitories, where they were constantly preached and beaten for the slightest misstep. Eventually, in 1967, Aborigines forced a government investigation that led to the mission's dissolution in 1969. Jigalong has been one of the best-known and most extreme examples of “ethnocentric arrogance and racism” among the missions since coming to terms with the stolen generation .
Christianization progressed slowly in all missions. Those missions like the Ernabella or the Finke River Mission, which did not require a complete departure from the traditional way of life, were the more successful in Christianization, as they made it possible to combine traditional religion and Christianity and adapt them to the needs of the Aborigines.
In the area of the Western Desert, for example in Maralinga , the relatively uninhabited land was used to carry out nuclear weapons tests in the 1950s and 1960s . In preparation, two government officials searched the area for Aboriginal people to relocate. However, about 40 Pila Ngura initially remained undetected in the area of radioactive fallout ; the health consequences were not documented.
Outstation Movement and Situation Today
The Australian-wide land rights movement began in the 1960s with the aim of obtaining the native title , i.e. the property rights to crown land. In the Northern Territory, the Aboriginal Land Rights Act of 1976 paved the way for Aborigines to claim land rights. In 1981 the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Land Rights Act followed , which granted the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara rights to their land, which is largely located in South Australia. To the south of it, the Maralinga Tjarutja Land Rights Act in 1984 gave more areas back to the traditional owners. The remaining areas of the cultural area can be used within the framework of the legislation that the judgment of Mabo v. Queensland (No. 2) followed to be sued.
The right to their own land meant that Aborigines, who previously lived in missions, reservations, cattle farms and localities, largely returned to their traditional land, initially in simple camps, and later also in houses, to set up their own farms (stations). build up. There they live to this day in a mixture of traditional and modern life: On the one hand, their life is largely sedentary, as they moved into the houses made possible by government programs and grow their own vegetables, which are irrigated with water pumps built by government funds; on the other hand, the language and culture are cultivated, relatives are visited in various other outstations for a long time in a manner similar to traditional nomadic life, and kangaroos are still hunted, albeit now with cars and rifles. In addition to government funding, there is income from licenses granted to mining companies . Overall, however, with the new self-determination, the dependency on welfare also increased, medical care and schooling deteriorated, as the outstations are very isolated and whites - who could have provided medical or school care - at least in the first few years as permanent residents were undesirable.
Small elementary schools with 10 or 15 students are now also available in remote areas; secondary schools only in Tennant Creek and Alice Springs. Accordingly, young people in distant areas leave school earlier. Only just over 50% of the 15-year-olds still go to school, while in the cities it is almost 80%. In addition to the local schools, there has been the opportunity to “visit” the School of the Air since 1951 ; a school program broadcasts this via radio or, for around ten years, via the Internet.
Basic medical care is primarily provided by nurses who live in some communities and work in community health centers ; In emergencies, the Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia can provide technical support on the phone, with materials, with personnel or with the transport of patients. There are doctors and a hospital each in Alice Springs and Tennant Creek, which results in extremely long journeys of up to 1000 km for patients. Aboriginal people, like all permanent residents of Australia, have health insurance through tax-funded state Medicare . There are no separate data on the health status of the Aborigines in the desert cultural area, but it can be assumed that they are similar to the overall Aboriginal population: the average life expectancy of Aborigines is around 15 years less than the national average; the reasons for this are varied and are discussed controversially. What is striking, however, is the increased prevalence of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.
As with the non-indigenous population, Aboriginal unemployment is lowest in rural central Australia as the prosperous mining industry provides plenty of work. Nevertheless, the unemployment rate among the Aborigines, at 10%, is significantly higher than that of the rest of the population, which is around 3%.
As with many indigenous peoples, the consequences of cultural and social uprooting can also be seen in Australia: Young male Aborigines in particular are conspicuous for their abuse of alcohol , sniffing gasoline , violence and sexual assault . The risk of domestic violence is 45 times higher and the risk of being murdered is 10 times higher for Aborigines than for other Australians. Sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis are 20 times more likely, and children between the ages of 10 and 14 are 186 times more likely to have gonorrhea . Although such generalized figures are to be viewed critically, they do point to the fundamental problems in the indigenous communities.
As one of the measures against drug abuse, many Aboriginal communities have banned alcohol in their communities and are "dry". In 2005 the oil company British Petroleum developed opal , a fuel that has no mind-altering effect.
In 2007, following the publication of the report Little Children are Sacred , the Australian federal government and the Northern Territory National Emergency Response abolished the self-government of the Aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory and, supported by the logistics of the military, carried out, among other things, medical screening for children. The report describes the prevalence of child sexual abuse in Aboriginal communities and their neglect for health.
religion
The missionary Friedrich Kempe from Hermannsburg wrote in 1885 that the Aborigines have no religion and that fear is the only trace of religion in them; Until the 1930s anthropologists emphasized the totem character of rites and myths and described the traditional religion of the Aborigines as a preliminary stage of "real" religion. It was only in the further scientific discourse of the 1920s and 1930s that the realization that Aborigines have a religion took hold.
From the Arrernte word alcheringa (alternative spellings altyerre or altyerrenge ), which can mean both "law" and "eternity" as well as "dreams", Spencer and Gillen derived the designation dreamtime ( dreamtime or dreaming ) as a term for the spiritual world the Arrernte and all Aborigines. The dream time describes how different creatures, the Ancestor Beings (German: "Ahnen-Wesen"), created mountains, rivers and valleys during their experiences and journeys on the unformed land and also left behind laws that regulated the life of the Aborigines. The journeys of the Ancestor Beings are described in songlines . They give in verse the travel routes and the characteristics of the land and serve as orientation in the land to find well-known water sources and food.
Most of the knowledge about the dream time and the songlines is secret and will not be disclosed to outsiders. An important requirement for acquiring knowledge is initiation. An example that has been published in some cases is the Uluru myth of the Pitjantjatjara , which describes the history of the origins of the monolith formerly called "Ayers Rock" by the whites.
The rituals, songlines and ceremonies of the Arrernte - as far as made accessible to them - were described by Spencer and Gillen as well as by father and son Strehlow. Other strains have only recently been studied; Since female scientists have also been researching in the field since the 1970s, ceremonies and secrets of women have been investigated for the first time.
As with other Aboriginal plays a complex system of kinship (kinship) a crucial role in the religious and social obligations of an individual. There are only differences to other cultural areas in the details of the individual rituals, such as in the body decoration.
art
Panaramitee style petroglyphs
As in many other parts of Australia, there are petroglyphs in the Central and Western Desert . In the center of Australia, these petroglyphs are predominantly in the Panaramitee style : dots, lines and circles symbolize, for example, paths, tracks, water sources. Typically they are about 10 cm tall and rather abstract, which suggests a spiritual meaning. For example, the dots and lines can represent the traces of the Ancestor Beings of Dreamtime and the drawings illustrate how they shaped the country. In contrast, figurative representations are reserved for secular subjects such as hunting. This figurative style is said to have developed later. Two finds are described in more detail: the Ewaninga petroglyphs in the Arrernte area , 40 km south of Alice Springs, and the Cleland Hills Faces , 320 km west of Alice Springs, which, in addition to hundreds of Panaramitee- style motifs, also depicts 16 faces.
The age of the rock carvings has not yet been reliably determined. It is disputed whether a drawing in Yunta Springs, in the southeast of the cultural area, is actually the Diprotodon , which died out at least 25,000 years ago , as Herbert Basedow suspects. Due to the heavy weathering and coating, however, an age of more than 10,000 years is very likely.
In Aboriginal art , the motifs of this style have been used by the Luritja and Pintupi from Papunya since 1971 in a modern art form, dot painting .
Rock painting
In the entire desert cultural area, there are rock paintings with motifs a few centimeters in size that are repeatedly repeated next to each other. It is typical of the Central Desert that a single motif can cover a large area by repeatedly standing next to one another. Some of the best-documented rock art of this style include Emily Gap , near Alice Springs, and Ngama , in the Warlpiri area . Negative red ocher handprints are found in the Central Desert, but not in the Western Desert. Overall, the rock painting of the Central Desert is considered to be more varied and complex than that of the Western Desert. The colors used are white and red ocher, many paintings are bichrome, some are monochrome.
Like rock carvings, rock painting often has a spiritual meaning: Emily Gap knows that these are traces of Caterpillar Dreaming . The caterpillar (caterpillar) formed Emily Gap and many other landscapes near Alice Springs. Other functions of rock painting and carving are to highlight the social significance of the site and to promote group cohesion.
Since the colors wash out easily on the one hand and are regularly renewed ritually on the other, an exact dating of rock paintings has so far been impossible.
Modern art
The first commercially successful Aboriginal artist was Albert Namatjira , the founder of the Hermannsburg School . He worked with watercolors from the 1930s and painted the landscapes of the Western MacDonnell Ranges. Several of his sons and a number of other residents from Hermannsburg produced pictures in his style. Exhibitions across Australia took place; Nowadays his paintings can be seen in many museums in Australia.
The aforementioned dot painting came up in the 1970s. The most important representative is Clifford Possum Tjapaltjarri - one of his paintings reached AUS $ 2.5 million, the highest price for a painting by an Aboriginal artist. Finally, the artist developed Emily Kngwarreye from Utopia on the style by overlapped the points.
In many communities of the cultural area there is no work and, apart from government grants, art is often the only source of income. As a result, especially in the 1980s and 1990s, art was in many cases produced as if on an assembly line; at the expense of quality and working conditions. Emily Kngwarreye was also accused of having worked too much on mass after all. According to an investigation by the Australian Parliament, allegations of the exploitation of artists who had to support their entire community with underpaid art were offset by benefits such as maintaining traditional culture, increased self-esteem among artists and Aborigines and increased social cohesion in the communities.
language
In the cultural area, different dialects of three Australian languages are mainly spoken (given in brackets: number of speakers): among them Pintupi , Luritja (1500), Ngaanyatjarra (1000) and Pitjantjatjara (2600) from the Western Desert Language (7300); Arrernte (2800) and Anmatyerre (1000) from the Arandic language (5500); and Warlpiri (2500), which is part of the Northern Desert Fringe Area Languages (4500). In addition, there are still a few speakers of half a dozen other languages. What they all have in common is that, like 90% of the languages in Australia, they belong to the linguistic union of the Pama Nyunga languages.
The trend, the proportion of speakers of a language with the distance from cities: While only less than 1% of the Aboriginal speak an Australian language in cities like Sydney, are in the very remote (very remote) areas to which most of the cultural area Desert heard, 60% still speak an Australian language. Around 13% state that they have no or insufficient command of English. In the 1970s, various government organizations began introducing bilingual programs in schools to preserve the languages. Since the late 1990s, however, financial support for this has been reduced.
literature
Historical literature
- Lucien Lévy-Bruhl (1935) La mythology primitive. Le monde mythique des Australiens et des Papous
- Baldwin Spencer , Francis James Gillen (1927) The Arunta
- Baldwin Spencer , Francis James Gillen (1899) The northern tribes of Central Australia ISBN 0-559-10977-6
- Carl Strehlow (1908) The Aranda and Loritja tribes in Central Australia , edited by Moritz von Leonhardi
- Theodore George Henry Strehlow (1947) Aranda Traditions
- John McDouall Stuart The Journals of John Mcdouall Stuart
- Charles Sturt (1849) Narrative of an expedition into central Australia, performed under the authority of Her Majesty's Government, during the years 1844, 5, and 6: together with a notice of the province of South Australia, in 1847, Volume 1
Newer literature
- Diane Austin-Broos (2009) Arrernte Present, Arrernte Past: Invasion, Violence, and Imagination in Indigenous Central Australia ISBN 0-226-03264-7
- Richard Broome (2002) Aboriginal Australians: black responses to white dominance, 1788-2001 ISBN 1-86508-755-6
- Maxwell John Charlesworth, Françoise Dussart, Howard Morphy (2005) Aboriginal religions in Australia: an anthology of recent writings ISBN 0-7546-5128-2
- Robert MW Dixon (2002), Australian languages: their nature and development ISBN 0-521-47378-0
- Josephine Flood (2004) Archeology of the Dreamtime ISBN 1-876622-50-4
- Josephine Flood (2006) The Original Australians ISBN 978-1-74114-872-5
- Sam D. Gill (1998) Storytracking: texts, stories, & histories in Central Australia ISBN 0-19-511587-2
- Richard A. Gould (1980) Living archeology ISBN 0-521-23093-4
- Robert Layton (1989) Uluru - An Aboriginal History of Ayers Rock ISBN 0-85575-202-5
- Richard B. Lee (1968) Man the hunter ISBN 0-202-33032-X
- Ian Lilley (2006) Archeology of Oceania: Australia and the Pacific Islands ISBN 0-631-23083-1
- Derek John Mulvaney, Johan Kamminga (1999) Prehistory of Australia ISBN 1-86448-950-2
- Tim Rowse (2002) White Flour, White Power: From Rations to Citizenship in Central Australia ISBN 0-521-52327-3
- Peter Marius Veth, MA Smith, Peter Hiscock (2005) Desert peoples: archaeological perspectives ISBN 1-4051-0091-5
- Annette B. Weiner (1992) Inalienable possessions: the paradox of keeping-while-giving ISBN 0-520-07604-4
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b c David Horton (Ed.) (1994) The Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society and Culture ISBN 0-85575-234-3 , quoted from Aboriginal Australia Map ( Memento from January 6, 2015 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Nicolas Peterson (1976) The natural and cultural areas of Aboriginal Australia in Tribes and boundaries in Australia ISBN 0-85575-048-0
- ^ John Taylor (2003) Australian Geographer (34): 3, pp. 355-370
- ^ Josephine Flood (2004), p. 81
- ^ Josephine Flood (2004), page 6
- ^ Josephine Flood (2004), p. 102
- ^ Ian Lilley, 42
- ↑ Ian Lilley, p. 44
- ↑ a b R.MW Dixon, page 12
- ↑ RMW Dixon, page 684
- ^ Veth, pp. 232, 233
- ^ Veth, p. 238
- ^ Derek Mulvany, p. 316
- ^ Josephine Flood (2006), p. 128
- ↑ Sam Gill, 59
- ^ Robert Layton, 62
- ↑ Sam Gill, p. 56
- ↑ a b Josephine Flood (2006), page 203
- ^ Richard Broome, 122
- ↑ a b Richard Broome, page 123
- ^ Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Land Rights Act .
- ↑ Diane Austin-Broos, chapter 7
- ^ Diane Austin-Broos, 177
- ↑ Josephine Flood (2006) page 252
- ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) Population Characteristics, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians: Education ( March 17, 2011 memento in the Internet Archive ), accessed May 31, 2010
- ↑ Australian Institute for Health and Welfare (2005) The health and welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 2005 ( Memento of October 16, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 5.6 MB), accessed on June 1, 2010, Page 15
- ↑ Australian Institute for Health and Welfare (2005) The health and welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 2005 ( Memento of October 16, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 5.6 MB), accessed on June 1, 2010, Page 18
- ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) Population Characteristics, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians: Unemployment ( Memento of March 17, 2011 in the Internet Archive ), accessed June 1, 2010
- ^ Josephine Flood (2006), p. 255
- ^ Josephine Flood (2006), p. 252
- ↑ Opal® - Good for cars, No good for sniffing
- ^ Northern Territory Government Little Children are Sacred , accessed May 31, 2010
- ↑ Sam Gill, p. 58
- ^ Josephine Flood (2006), p. 138
- ↑ a b c Josephine Flood (2004), p. 163
- ↑ a b Derek John Mulvaney, p. 373
- ^ Richard Gould, 166
- ^ Ian Lilley, p. 109
- ↑ Northern Territory Government Emily and Jessie Gaps Nature Park ( Memento April 27, 2014 in the Internet Archive ), accessed March 3, 2010 (English)
- ^ Ian Lilley, 110
- ↑ Parliament of Australia: Senate (2007) Indigenous Art - Securing the Future Australia's Indigenous visual arts and craft sector Chapter 3 - The benefits of Indigenous art
- ↑ Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) Population Characteristics, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians ( Memento of October 25, 2009 in the Internet Archive ), pages 39-41 (English)
- ↑ Australian Bureau of Statistics (2005) Australian Standard Classification of Languages (ASCL) (English; PDF; 1.8 MB)
- ↑ Patrick McConvell, Nicholas Thieberger (2001) State of Indigenous languages in Australia ( Memento from July 19, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 1.1 MB) Department of the Environment and Heritage, page 98 (English)
