Bog corpse

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Tollund man
The Grauballe man , a bog corpse from Denmark

As a bog body referred to human remains or complete corpse finds, by soft tissue preservation in the acidic environment of a moor , and by the absence of oxygen and the effect of humic acids have been preserved, while the mineral components of bone often dissolve.

General

Finds of bog bodies have been known since the beginning of written records. Most of the bodies were found accidentally while cutting peat and buried or buried again by those who found them, often out of fear of inconvenience. Experts who recognized the historical significance of the finds were only rarely consulted. Once removed from the protective moor, the bodies quickly dried up, rotted or moldy if conservation measures were not taken immediately. Other bog bodies that were already in the care of museums were lost as a result of wars, relocations or negligence in storage. More than 1000 bog bodies or their parts are currently known from Europe. Until the early modern period , bog corpses, or parts of them, were occasionally made into mumia and sold as medicinal products in pharmacies.

The term bog body for the Fund genus of human bodies and body parts from bogs in 1871 by the Holstein scientist Johanna Mestorf coined.

The formation of peatlands began in Europe after the last Glaciation of the Vistula.As a result, finds of peat bodies from all post-glacial epochs date from the Stone Age , the earliest and reliably datable find of which is the man from Koelbjerg from the 8th millennium BC, to the present day . However, there is a significant accumulation in the Northern European Iron Age from the 1st century BC to the 4th century AD. The main areas of their spatial distribution are in all of Northern Europe , especially Ireland and the United Kingdom . In Denmark , the Netherlands and the North German Plain ( Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein ), although other regions with raised or fens can also be considered, examples being the Bavarian bog bodies of Frau von Peiting or Pangerfilze , or the Windwover site in Called Florida, USA.

In addition to human remains, bodies of animals, such as peat dogs , were found again and again , but only rarely received special attention. These were neither recovered nor documented and in most cases disposed of or processed. A special feature here is the almost completely preserved peat dog from Burlage , which is one of the few animal bog corpses that have survived .

Finds of bog bodies such as the girl from the Uchter Moor , which was almost completely recovered near Nienburg in 2000 , have become rare due to the increasing mechanization of peat extraction. Today there is a high probability that bog corpses with the peat will be mined undetected and thus destroyed.

Preservation in moors

The peat moss present in the bog means that bogs have a strongly acidic environment. This has three different effects on the bog corpses. First, the bones of living beings are almost completely decalcified and the bone structure is dissolved by the acid . Secondly, by the will of humic and tannic skin , tissue , hair , cartilage and fingernails tanned and thus preserved. The color and consistency of the organs changes very strongly in the process; in the case of very freshly excavated finds they can range from milky-white to red-brown to black, leathery and completely elastic. Thirdly, acid inhibits the growth of bacteria that decompose organic material such as meat or leather . Oxygen-free storage under the water surface is a prerequisite for this preservation.

Without special treatment, the finds dry out after being removed from the moor and shrink considerably. If atmospheric oxygen reaches the find, microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria can quickly decompose it. Extensive conservation measures are therefore necessary in order to preserve finds permanently . Initially, the finds were dried in ovens or tanned in oak to complete the tanning process that had begun through the moor. The objects then had to be treated with oils or tars to stabilize them, but this led to severe, irreversible changes and contamination of the finds.

A few finds were kept moist, for example in formalin baths , which also made the finds unusable for many research methods. Most finds are currently freeze-dried in a controlled manner , and the inevitable shrinkage is reduced by soaking them with polyethylene glycol . Recently attempts have been made to store the finds under the same conditions as in the bog. To do this, they are cooled and stored in moor liquid from the site.

See also Conservation Conditions for Organic Material

Scientific importance

Due to their often excellent state of preservation, bog corpses offer a unique opportunity to examine people from the Iron Age. It can be determined from which diseases they suffered, even the stomach contents can be analyzed in individual cases ( Tollund-Mann , Grauballe-Mann , Frau von Huldremose ) and provides information about the possible time of death. Most of the bog corpses, which obviously had to die as human sacrifices, were killed in late winter. This is an important argument that allows the bog corpses to be interpreted as human sacrifices. The excellent state of preservation of the soft tissues right through to the individual facial features makes it possible to “look in the face” of a person of that time. This possibility of encounter explains the fascination that bog corpses exert on many people.

Recent studies by the Canadian anthropologist Heather Gill-Robinson have provided valuable information on the diet of the Iron Age population on the peat mummies of Schleswig-Holstein in the Gottorf Castle Museum . It was very poor in meat and also characterized by completely avoiding sea animals. The researcher also found that some older bog finds had been tampered with.

History of exploration

The man from Kragelund from 1898 as it was found, the first bog body to be photographically documented.

The earliest sure evidence of a moor corpse find comes from a peasant chronicle from 1640, which reports on the discovery of a well-preserved body from the Schalkholzer Moor in Schleswig-Holstein. However, like many others, this body was immediately reburied. The Irish Countess of Moira carried out the first scientific work on a bog body find in 1781. She examined the braids of hair and leftover clothing handed over by an employee and presented a detailed publication in the journal Archeology . However, it took a few decades before this type of find received greater scientific attention, and it was not until the 1830s that bog corpses found increasing interest in ancient and anthropological experts. Since the middle of the 20th century, these finds have also attracted more interest from other fields of the humanities and natural sciences, and finds are increasingly being processed across disciplines.

Initially, science in the late 19th and early 20th centuries assumed that the moor corpses were only people from the first centuries around the birth of Christ who came to the moor due to Germanic legal customs and whose occurrence is relatively limited limited geographical area in Central Europe (British Isles, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands). This view was based primarily on the reports Tacitus in his Germania . With the increase in scientifically documented and examined finds, this view was revised, as these corpses ended up in the moor for various reasons and encompass almost all epochs . According to the current state of research, scientists such as Johanna Mestorf , Hans Hahne and Alfred Dieck tried to redefine the definition of the term bog body, but without reaching a generally valid and accepted definition. This definition question mainly concerned whether certain epochs and types of landfill such as burial, sacrifice, burial, accidental death should be included or excluded.

Since the beginning of the bog corpse research, numerous attempts have been made to compile a complete list of the European bog corpses finds. Due to the sometimes difficult source situation - many find reports are based only on hearsay; Many bog bodies were buried again or destroyed without documentation, or their whereabouts are unknown - it is impossible to give a reliable indication of the exact number of finds. The example of Alfred Dieck's research shows this problem particularly clearly.

interpretation

According to the 2006 investigations, the bog body Windeby I in the Gottorf Castle Museum is a boy and not a woman
Another male bog corpse in the Archaeological Museum Schloss Gottorf

Since the beginning of their scientific research, there have been controversial debates on the background to the occurrence of bog corpses, with frequently changing doctrinal opinions. Up until the beginning of the 20th century, the assumption prevailed that the corpses were victims who accidentally or carelessly drowned, froze to death or starved to death in the moor , such as the cases of Fraer Mose's wife , Koelbjerg's husband or the woman from Luttra suggest. Fraer Mose's wife, in particular, was found stretched out on her stomach, with one foot stuck in a deeper layer of bog, whereas the bony remains of the woman were spread over a larger area in the bog, which suggests that the bones after decomposition from water movements have been relocated. In the early 20th century, Herbert Jankuhn 's theory of punishment became increasingly the focus of discussions, according to which corpses were human , executed or sacrificed criminals. This theory is based on statements made by the Roman writer Tacitus in his work Germania , according to which the Germanic peoples preferred to make human sacrifices for the earth goddess Nerthus in late winter or early spring , and to have executed certain criminals, war-shy and deserters by immersing themselves in swamps. This theory was reinforced in the 1950s by Peter Vilhelm Glob after the discovery of the men from Grauballe and Tollund , which, according to research at the time, was confirmed by these two finds. The noticeable accumulation of bog body finds occurs during the expansion of the Roman Empire to areas of the then still free Germanic tribes. However, whether the accumulation is related to this expansion, the increased political pressure and the resulting social unrest within the free Germanic tribes is the subject of discussion. Above all, the discovery of the Lindow man led to the assumption that his overkilling and sacrifice had a cultic connection with the Roman invasion of Britain . However, by far not all bog bodies can be traced back to accidents, sacrifices or punishments: Numerous people who died under natural circumstances were found who were buried in the bog outside of the usual funeral rites . Examples of such special burials include the wife von Peiting , the child von Windeby , the girl von Dröbnitz , or the case of Jan Spieker , all of whom received a careful and loving burial, even if carried out apart from the usual funeral rites. The reasons for this can lie in the fear of the dead man's revenge , through a special burial of culturally or socially excluded people to emergency burials in cases where a regular burial was not possible without great effort. On the other hand, dumping in the bog could also be based on an attempt to erase the memory of the dead from the collective memory of the community. As a relatively new theory, a temporary dumping of the corpse in the moor for the purpose of preservation has also been discussed since the discoveries of Cladh Hallan.As reasons for this, a mourning ceremony planned at a later date or the preparation of the corpse for further use are suggested. Overall, it can be summarized that the backgrounds for the occurrence of human corpses in moors are very complex and a uniform, generally valid theory for their occurrence cannot be established. Stefan Burmeister devotes himself to the various theories and attempts at interpretation in more detail.

Irish research

The National Museum of Ireland founded a research project "Bog Bodies" in 2003 after the discovery of bog bodies in Oldcroghan, County Offaly and Clonycavan, County Meath . The remarkably well-preserved remains were dated between 400 and 200 BC. Dated. A variety of analyzes including CT and MRI, histological and pathological analyzes were performed. The exhibition “Kingship and Sacrifice” gives an overview of this and the continental European context. The exhibition is based on the theory that human sacrifices in the bog are linked to royalty and certain rituals of the Iron Age . Research has found materials and identified actions associated with such rituals. These include: feasts, border markings, insignia, grinding stones , moor butter , processions and weapons.

  • The category of insignia includes headdresses such as the so-called Petrie crown and two horns from a headdress from a moor in Runnabehy; two gold rings from Ardnaglug Bog, both in County Roscommon ; a cloak from a bog near Derrykeighan, County Antrim , an armband from Ballymahon, County Meath, and the leather cloak of the Baronstown West Man.
  • Items related to processions on horseback or in vehicles include: bridles and bridles from a bog near Attymon, County Galway, and a wooden yoke from a bog near Erriff, County Mayo .
  • Weapons include a leather shield from Clonura, County Tipperary , a wooden sword from Ballykilmurray, County Wicklow , spearheads from Lisnacrogher in County Antrim, the River Shannon in Banagher , County Offaly, and Roodstown, County Louth .
Keshcarrigan drinking cup
  • Feasts include a large bronze cauldron from Ballyedmond, County Galway, a drinking cup from Keshcarrigan, County Leitrim, and wooden bowls from Magheran, County Donegal and Emlaghmore, County Roscommon.
  • Anthropomorphic wood carvings from Ralaghan, County Cavan and Corlea, County Longford appear to have served as boundary markers.
  • A wooden barrel containing peat butter was discovered on a bog near Rosberry, County Kildare and in the bog where the remains of the Barronstown West Man were found. These objects are associated with the inauguration of a new king and appear to have been buried at the borders as a declaration of the king's new sovereignty.

Overkilling

The Old Croghan man died between 362 and 175 BC. And the Clonycavan man between 392 and 201 BC. His hair was mixed with pine resin (a very early hair gel). The trees from which the resin originates only grew in Spain and southwestern France. Both men were horribly killed, suggesting ritual murders. The Old Croghan man had holes in his upper arms through which a rope of hazel rods was threaded. He was stabbed and his nipples sliced. The Clonycavan man was over-killed. It had been eviscerated and had marks from three ax blows on the head and one on the body. This brutality is not limited to Irish bog corpses and has shown itself on the remains of the Lindow man from Cheshire . His skull was bashed in, he was strangled, and his throat was cut.

The reasons for these overkills are uncertain, but Ned Kelly has a theory. He believes the men were failed kings or candidates for kingship who were killed and sunk in bogs that formed the tribal borders. Both the Clonycavan and the Old Croghan man had their nipples cut open. Sucking on a king's nipples was the gesture of submission in ancient Ireland. Their destruction made him unable to carry out the kingship. The bog bodies served as sacrifices for the goddess.

Gender historical references

For the Germanic-speaking gentes of the Roman Empire, the moor was a border area between the human and the divine world, which is why many ritual sacrifices took place there. In the 12th chapter of his Germania, Tacitus reports on various execution practices among the Germanic-speaking peoples living east of the Rhine and north of the Danube. As a result, ignavi (“cowards”), imbelles (“unwilling to fight”) and corpore infames (personally free men who, according to Tacitus, assumed the sexually passive role in same-sex contacts) were punished by being immersed in the moor. Tacitus writes about this ( Germania 12,1): “ proditores et transfugas arboribus suspendunt, ignavos et imbelles et corpore infames caeno ac palude, iniecta insuper crate, mergunt. " (Traitors and defectors tie them up in the trees, cowards, war-shy and physically violated people sink them in the mud and swamp and throw wattle over them)

According to the results of the current research on bog bodies, the corresponding passage within the Germania of Tacitus ( Germania 12,1–2) seems to be part of the Interpretatio Romana , i. H. a comparison of Roman conditions with those of Germanic-speaking peoples or a transfer of Roman sexual ideas to the alleged legal practice of the inhabitants of the Barbaricum on the right bank of the Rhine . The following points speak in favor of this:

  • The several hundred bog corpses examined not only come from several millennia, but also cannot be limited to the geographical area of Germania libera or southern Scandinavia.
  • Among the bog corpses there is a larger number of women and children, which is outweighed by the numerical number of male corpses, but the existence of which nevertheless differs from the Tacite report, which refers to the sinking of people in the bog only as a punitive practice Men knows.
  • The group of those drowned in situ , which is actually relevant for this question, can definitely not be directly assigned to any of the bog bodies found, especially since many of the bodies were previously killed in other ways - such as by strangulation or hanging - which is also the opposite to the report of Tacitus stands. It is therefore no longer possible, based on current research on bog bodies , to relate one of the groups of bog corpses found with the description of the Roman historiographer in Germania XII, 1-2.
  • In addition, when drafting the Germania , Tacitus was guided by the presumed intention to present the alleged sex life of the Germani in the sense of the ancient Roman ideas of mos maiorum and virtus as being characterized by apparent simplicity in order to at least indirectly criticize that of to be able to practice the sexual behavior of his contemporaries from the Roman nobilitas , which he perceived as "exuberant" . Since same-sex sexual behavior among men in Rome was regarded as a sign of this “opulence”, it did not fit into the Tacite image of the “Germanic”.
  • Within the entirety of the bog corpses found, some of these finds can nevertheless be regarded as sunk in the bog according to a specific rite. However, since in many cases it cannot be clearly proven whether the people who were presumably sunk according to a certain rite are a sacrificial rite, a legal rite or a combination of both of these factors, a large part of the corpses sunk in the moor are likely to be victims the gods are likely to be seen, a final answer to the question of the extent to which people in the Germanic-speaking peoples of the late first century were executed in parallel as part of a criminal law practice by being dumped in the bog, must remain open, although the view was that some of the bog bodies found had been penalized , is indeed advocated by some researchers. However, it remains unclear whether one of the offenses mentioned by Tacitus (e.g. cowardice = ignavi ) applies to the men who may have been sunk as a result of the prison system , but not another. Thus, an inner cultural-historical coherence of the statement of Tacitus that sexually passive, same-sex acting men were sunk in the moor by the inhabitants of Germania libera , could no longer be verified.

Later Greek and Roman authors report, in contrast to Tacitus, that certain manifestations of same-sex sexual behavior were widespread and at least tolerated in some Germanic-speaking gentes ; So at the turn of the second to the third century AD Sextus Empiricus with a generalizing view of the Germanic-speaking peoples, in the second half of the fourth century Ammianus Marcellinus with regard to the people of the Taifals and in the sixth century Prokopios of Caesarea with regard to the Heruli. The more recent historical research therefore assumes that same-sex sexual relationships at least in some Germanic-speaking gentes of the Roman imperial period and the migration epoch had the function of an initiation rite of the young team (e.g. in the typhoon) or that such behavior patterns were endemic within the framework of male union organized follower associations were. This conforms to the fact that criminal penalties regarding same-sex sexual behavior among men are absent in most of the Germanic legal sources of the Migration Period. A legal norm condemning same-sex sexual behavior appears in the Lex Romana Visigothorum (506 AD) issued during the reign of Alaric II, but this threat of punishment is clearly determined by the reception of contemporary Roman law , namely the Codex Theodosianus. In addition, the Lex Romana Visigothorum was only valid for the Romansh-speaking population of the Visigothic Empire, while the Codex Euricianus, which was a few decades older and which was valid for the Gothic-speaking inhabitants of the regnum Visigothorum, paralleled the Franconian Lex Salica and the rights of the Burgundians, Lombards and Anglo-Saxons etc., shows no evidence of any criminal prosecution of same-sex sexual behavior. The sexual criminal measures of the vandal ruling class against the so-called viri molles mentioned by Salvianus of Marseille for the reign of King Geiseric in North Africa are likely to relate to late antique transvestites among the Roman provincial population of Carthage, but presumably not to same-sex behaviors of Vandal men, especially since Prokopios of Caesarea in his " Bellum Vandalicum " from the sixth century reports that the vandals living in North Africa practiced aphrodisia panta ("all forms of sexual love").

Demarcation

Bog corpses are to be separated from finds in the bog from the time of the more recent funnel cup culture such as in Dagsmose, Døjringe, Føllenslev, Gemeindeberggasse, Sigersdal and Sludegard Mose, all in Denmark that consist of body parts (mostly skulls) and are to be regarded as bog victims.

Known bog bodies

Mrs. von Haraldskær
The man from Jührdenerfeld

Selection of further bog bodies not mentioned in the text:

More finds

See also

literature

Basic works

  • Thomas Brock: Bog bodies. Witnesses of past millennia . In: Archeology in Germany, special issue . Theiss, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-8062-2205-0 .
  • Wijnand van der Sanden : Mummies from the moor. The prehistoric and protohistoric bog bodies from northwestern Europe . Batavian Lion International, Amsterdam 1996, ISBN 90-6707-416-0 (Dutch, original title: Vereeuwigd in het veen . Translated by Henning Stilke, Current overview on bog body research).
  • Peter Pieper: Bog bodies . In: Heinrich Beck , Dieter Geuenich , Heiko Steuer (Hrsg.): Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . tape 20 . de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2001, ISBN 3-11-017164-3 , p. 222-229 .
  • Michael Fee : Moor corpses in Schleswig-Holstein . Ed .: Association for the Promotion of Archaeolog. Landesmuseums eV, Gottorf Castle. Wachholtz, Neumünster 2002, ISBN 3-529-01870-8 .
  • PV Glob : The sleepers in the moor . Winkler, Munich 1966 (Danish, original title: Mosefolket . Translated by Thyra Dohrenburg, basic work on bog corpses and their interpretation as human sacrifice).

further reading

  • Miranda Aldhouse Green: Human Sacrifice - Ritual Murder from the Iron Age to the End of Antiquity . Magnus, Essen 2003, ISBN 3-88400-009-8 .
  • Melanie Giles: Worsley Man: Manchester's bow head . In: Bog bodies: Face to face with the past . Manchester University Press, Manchester 2019, ISBN 978-1-5261-5019-6 (English, manchesteropenhive.com [accessed December 26, 2020]).
  • Herbert Jankuhn : Nydam and Thorsberg. Iron Age bog finds . Guide through the collection. Ed .: Schleswig-Holstein State Museum for Prehistory and Early History in Schleswig. No. 3 . Neumünster 1962.
  • Allan A. Lund : Critical research report on Germania des Tacitus ( parts I - IV, part V: Bibliographical overview of Germania editions and comments from the years 1880 to 1989, below pp. 2341–2344 ), in: Haase, Hans (ed .): The rise and fall of the Roman world (ANRW). History and Culture of Rome as Reflected in Recent Research , Part II: Principat , Volume 33, 3: Language and Literature (General information on the literature of the second century and individual authors from the Trajan and early Hadrian periods ), Berlin, New York 1991, pp. 1989– 2222.
  • Allan A. Lund: P. Cornelius Tacitus. Germania (Scientific Commentaries on Greek and Latin Writers), Heidelberg 1988.
  • Allan A. Lund: Attempt to interpret the 'Germania' of Tacitus as a whole, with an appendix: On the origin and history of the name and term Germani. In: Haase, Hans (ed.): Rise and decline of the Roman world (ANRW). History and culture of Rome as reflected in recent research. Part II: Principate. Volume 33, 3: Language and literature (general information on the literature of the second century and individual authors of the Trajan and early Hadrian times ), Berlin, New York 1991, pp. 1858–1988.
  • Gerhard Mildenberger: Social and cultural history of the Germanic peoples. From the beginning to the time of the Great Migration . Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1977, ISBN 3-17-004206-8 .
  • Peter Pieper: Peat bog corpses . In: Andreas Bauerochse, Henning Haßmann (Ed.): Peatlands . Leidorf, Rahden / Westphalia 2003, ISBN 3-89646-026-9 .
  • Johannes van der Plicht, Wijnand van der Sanden , AT Aerts, HJ Streurman: Dating bog bodies by means of 14 C-AMS . In: Journal of Archaeological Science . tape 31 , no. 4 , 2004, ISSN  0305-4403 , p. 471–491 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jas.2003.09.012 (English, ub.rug.nl [PDF; 388 kB ; accessed on June 2, 2010]).

Children's and youth non-fiction

  • Renate Germer: Mummies from all over the world . In: What is what . tape 84 . Tessloff, Nuremberg 2006, ISBN 3-7886-0424-7 .
  • Charlotte Wilcox: Mummies, bones & body parts . Carolrhoda Books, Minneapolis 2000, ISBN 1-57505-428-0 (English).
  • James M. Deem: Bodies from the Bog . Houghton Mifflin, Boston 1998, ISBN 0-618-35402-6 (English).

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Biographical article on Wikipedia: Elizabeth Rawdon, Countess of Moira
  2. ↑ Countess of Moira: Particulars relative to a Human Skeleton, and the Garments that were found thereon, when dug out of a Bog at the Foot of Drumkeragh, a Mountain in the County of Down, and Barony of Kinalearty, on Lord Moira's Estate, in the Autumn of 1780 . In: The Society of Antiquaries of London (Ed.): Archaeologia . No. 7 , 1785, p. 90-110 , doi : 10.1017 / S0261340900022281 .
  3. ↑ a b c Sabine Eisenbeiß: Bog corpses - delinquents, victims or burials? In: Ethno-graphical-archaeological journal . Issue 1, No. 50 , 2009, ISSN  0012-7477 , p. 79-92 .
  4. ↑ Herbert Jankuhn : The meaning of the moor body find . In: Offa. Reports and communications on prehistory, early history and medieval archeology . tape 3 . Wachholtz, 1938, ISSN  0078-3714 , p. 127-137 .
  5. ↑ Stefan Burmeister: Lethe in the moor or the topology of forgetting . In: Christoph Kümmel, Beat Schweizer, Ulrich Veit (Eds.): Body staging - collection of objects - monumentalization. Dead ritual and grave cult in early societies. Archaeological sources from a cultural-scientific perspective (=  Tübinger Archäologische Taschenbücher . No. 6 ). Waxmann, ISBN 978-3-8309-2004-5 , ISSN  1430-0931 , p. 431-442 .
  6. ↑ Stefan Burmeister : Moor corpses - special burial, criminal justice, victims? Approaches to a cultural-historical interpretation . In: Müller-Scheeßel (Ed.): Irregular burials in prehistory: norm, ritual, punishment ...? (=  Colloquia for Pre- and Early History . No. 19 ). Rudolf Habelt, Bonn 2013, ISBN 978-3-7749-3862-5 , p. 485-506 .
  7. ↑ Tacitus . In: Alfons Städele (Ed.): Cornelius Tacitus. Agricola. Germania. (Tusculum Collection) . Munich; Zurich 1991, p. 334 .
  8. ↑ Lund: Attempt to interpret the 'Germania' of Tacitus as a whole. P. 1896.
  9. ↑ Tacitus . In: Alfons Städele (Ed.): Cornelius Tacitus. Agricola. Germania. (Tusculum Collection) . Munich; Zurich 1991, p. 92 .
  10. ↑ Lund (1991), p. 1897.
  11. ↑ Lund: Attempt to interpret the 'Germania' of Tacitus as a whole. P. 1897.
  12. ↑ Jankuhn (1962), pp. 14/15.
  13. ↑ Lund: Attempt to interpret the 'Germania' of Tacitus as a whole. P. 1897.
  14. ^ Gerhard Perl: Tacitus-Germania . In: Hermann, Joachim (ed.): Greek and Latin sources on the early history of Central Europe up to the middle of the first millennium C.E. 2 (Writings and sources of the Old World, volume 37 , 2. Berlin 1990, p. 166 . )
  15. ↑ Michael Müller-Wille: Sacrificial cults of the Teutons and Slavs . In: Archeology in Germany special issue . Stuttgart 1999, p. 32 .
  16. ↑ Jankuhn (1962) p. 14.
  17. ↑ Lund: Attempt to interpret the 'Germania' of Tacitus as a whole , p. 1897: “From what has been said, it emerges that - according to the current state of bog body research - it is not possible to relate the information on Tacitus directly to a category of bog body finds . "
  18. ↑ Sextus Empiricus: Πυρρωνείαι ὑποτυπώσεις. In: RG Bury (ed.): Sextus Empiricus. Volume 1. Outlines of Pyrrhonism (The Loeb Classical Library), 6th edition. Cambridge / Massachusetts, London 1976; Sexus Empiricus III, 199, in: Bury (1976) p. 460.
  19. ↑ Ammianus Marcellinus: Rerum gestarum Libri XXXI, 9, 5 . In: John C. Rolfe (Ed.): Ammianus Marcellinus . 6th edition. tape 3 . The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge / Massachusetts; London 1986, p. 444 .
  20. ^ Procopius: De bello Gothico. II, 14, 33/34, p. 318.
  21. ↑ Mischa Meier: Men's Association . In: Heinrich Beck, Dieter Geuenich, Heiko Steuer (Hrsg.): Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . tape 19 (lynx - meter). Berlin; New York 2001, p. 105-110 .
  22. ^ David Greenberg: The Construction of Homosexuality . Chicago 1988, p. 243-246 .
  23. ↑ Wilhelm E. Wilda: The criminal law of the Germanic peoples . In: History of German criminal law . tape 1 . Aalen 1960, p. 858–859 (reprint of the Halle 1842 edition). : “Unnatural satisfaction of the sexual instinct does not seem to have remained completely alien to the Germans, at least to the northerners. It can be concluded from this that among the defamatory accusations it is also listed that a man allowed himself to be used as a woman. However, there are no further traces in the Germanic legal sources, and especially not of the punishment of such vicious acts as crimes. With reference to the provisions of the Old Testament, the Christian Church taught that the unnatural contact between men [...] was a sin worthy of death. We find the first mention in the Capitulare ecclesiasticum of the year 789, where, with reference to the Concilium of Ancyra, there is talk of the imposition of ecclesiastical penance ”
  24. ^ Prokopios of Caesarea : De bello Vandalico . In: HB Dewing (Ed.): Procopius. History of the Wars . 6th edition. tape 2 , 3 and 4. The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge / Massachusetts; London 1990, p. 256-258 .
  25. ^ Prokopios of Caesarea: De bello Gothico . In: Otto Veh (ed.): Prokop. Works . 2 Gothic Wars. Artemis, Munich 1978, p. 256-258 .
  26. ↑ Manfred Rech : Studies on depot finds of the funnel beakers and individual grave culture of the north . In: Offa books . tape 39 , 1979, pp. 48-53 .

Web links

Commons : Bog corpses  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Moor corpse  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Generally

Museums