Robert Conquest

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Robert Conquest (1987)

George Robert Ackworth Conquest , CMG , OBE (born July 15, 1917 in Great Malvern , Worcestershire , England - † August 3, 2015 in Palo Alto , California ) was a British poet and historian . Since 1980 he has worked as a political scientist in conservative institutions. Conquest became known in England as a traditionalist poet and science fiction writer. Conquest is considered to be one of the most important western historians with works on the Stalin era. His books The Great Terror and The Harvest of Death are "authoritative standard works" on the crimes of Stalinism , according to The New York Times .

Life

Conquest was born in Worcestershire in central England. His father was an American businessman, his mother Norwegian . Conquest's father served in an ambulance unit in the French army during World War I and was awarded the Croix de guerre in 1916 .

Conquest studied at Winchester College , Oxford, and then received a scholarship to Magdalen College . He earned his BA and MA in the Modern Greats ( Political Science , Philosophy and Economics ). He made his Doctor of Letters in history.

In 1936 he spent a year at the University of Grenoble and made a trip through Bulgaria . He returned to Oxford in 1937 and joined the Communist Party , which at the time included Denis Healey and Philip Toynbee . At the same time he also regularly attended the conservative Carlton Club . He soon left the Communist Party and began to reject communism. Also in 1937 he published some of the first poems in an anthology.

In 1939 he joined the army as an intelligence officer and married Joan Watkins in 1940, with whom he had two sons. In 1942, he was seconded to the School of Slavonic Studies for breaking his foot while training. There he learned Bulgarian for four months. In 1944 he was assigned as a liaison officer to the Bulgarian units that were fighting under Soviet command. After the war he was discharged from the army on the spot and became a press officer at the British embassy in Sofia . In 1948 he moved back to London, divorced his first wife and married Tatiana Mihailova, whom he had met in Bulgaria.

Conquest resumed intelligence work at the UK Foreign Office's Information Research Department (IRD). There he was supposed to push back the communist influence in Great Britain and wrote anti-communist propaganda and disinformation . He was very successful in his work for the agency and was even a member of the British delegation to the United Nations Security Council for some time . In 1956, at the request of the IRD, Conquest wrote Common Sense about Russia, his first book about the Soviet Union . A third of the circulation was bought by Praeger Press , a publisher that worked closely with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the US foreign intelligence service.

In the same year, Conquest separated from his second wife, who suffered from schizophrenia ; the marriage was divorced in 1962. In 1956 Conquest left the IRD and became a freelance writer and historian. He published two volumes of poetry and a science fiction novel and edited the five-volume Spectrum series of SF anthologies from 1962 to 1966, together with Kingsley Amis . He counted himself to a literary association called The Movement , which advocated classical forms in poetry and rejected modernist poetry.

Between 1962 and 1963 he worked for six months as an editor for the conservative British news magazine The Spectator . During this time he also published his early works on the Soviet Union such as Power and Politics in the USSR and Soviet Deportation of Nationalities . He then wrote other works on the question of nationality, the legal system and agricultural labor in the USSR.

In 1964 he married his third wife, Caroleen Macfarlane, an American. 1968 appeared during the Prague Spring his first major work The Great Terror (dt .: The Great Terror ). In 1977, Conquest translated Prussian Nights of Solzhenitsyn .

In 1978 Conquest divorced his third wife and a year later married Elizabeth Neece Wingate, a lecturer in 1979. In 1981 they both moved to California, where Conquest accepted a position at the Hoover Institution , a conservative think tank . In 1986 his second major work, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine, was published. It deals with the Holodomor , the famine in Ukraine between 1929 and 1931. Stalin's Holocaust in Ukraine 1929–1933 In the same year, What to Do When the Russians Come: A Survivor's Guide was published, in which he developed the idea of ​​an occupation of the United States by the Red Army .

He was also an advisory member of the Center for Strategic and International Studies , another think tank more concerned with foreign policy, and a member of the Board of Directors of the Institute for European Defense and Strategic Studies . He later wrote regularly for The New York Review of Books and The Times Literary Supplement .

politics

In 1937, the then 20-year-old Conquest joined the Communist Party of Great Britain , but did not feel comfortable there. He himself said:

"I found the communists very dull and rather stupid."

"I found the communists very boring and quite stupid."

- Robert Conquest

From the beginning he did not seem to be a strict communist, attended the conservative Carlton Club regularly and was friends with the Trotskyist John Blakeway , who later became the British Consul General in Istanbul . After returning from Bulgaria, Conquest radically rejected communism. Many justify this with Stalin's course, which he considered terrorist. The Labor -Politiker and ex-party member Denis Healey judged him thus:

“He always tended to extremes. He had become rather an extremist rightwinger within 10 years. ”

“He always tended to go to extremes. He became a real extremist right wing within ten years. "

- Denis Healey

Later, Conquest was a staunch anti-communist ; During his time at the IRD, he wrote many propaganda pamphlets of this attitude and since then has been a warner of the communist danger. In the 1960s, Conquest attended the dinner arranged by his friend Kingsley Amis , star author of the Angry Young Men generation, at which conservative and far-right politicians met weekly.

Despite his stringent anti-communism, Conquest continued to describe himself as a moderate left and said that until Margaret Thatcher's time he had always voted for the Labor Party .

Conquest was a staunch supporter of the Vietnam War and expressed concern in 2009 that young Viet Cong groupies had now become academics in influential positions.

In 1999, Conquest used the term rogue state to attack North Korea and Iraq . He called for the ability of these two states to act to be restricted. He later endorsed President Bush's policies . In an interview he compared Saddam Hussein to Benito Mussolini and said:

“Of course Mussolini was less bad than Saddam Hussein. It is also wrong to talk about fascism in Germany. One should always say National Socialism. "

- Robert Conquest

Conquest rejected the European Union and wanted Great Britain to leave the EU and enter into a looser alliance with the English-speaking nations, for which he suggested the name Anglosphere . He also rejected the United Nations; the UN should have no influence over the legislation of the western world as many rogue states would have influence over the UN.

Work and reception

Conquest's first publications were a science fiction novel and volumes of poetry. His great theme, dictatorship , is already recognizable in these early works. In his novel A World of Difference , a world is described in which the government exercises total psychological control over the population and thus a world of conformity emerges.

In his work The Egyptologists , which he wrote together with Kingsley Amis, an authoritarian society is described with excessive security authorities and strong regulation. The plot of the novella came from Conquest, and Amis adorned the story with explicitly sexual descriptions.

Conquest's poems are almost apolitical, they describe the visible world in a very powerful language. Often they deal with emotions or sexuality, but remain unromantic. His poems are classic; He rejects wrong grammar, broken, unclean English, metaphors, modernist or Americanizing influences. It stayed that way when Conquest moved to the United States, where he defended British literature under the American eagle . His science fiction poetry Between Mars and Venus is noteworthy .

The great terror

Cover picture of The Great Terror

Conquest's first major work, The Great Terror, deals with the third of Stalin's waves of purges , which began in 1934 with the assassination of Sergei Mironovich Kirov , for which Conquest made Stalin responsible. The trials against Grigory Evsejewitsch Zinoviev and Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin are dealt with and the GULag system is described. The book ends with accusations against western leftists and intellectuals who, from the point of view of Conquests, have made themselves servants of Stalin's terror. Here are other Jean-Paul Sartre , Lillian Hellman and Walter Duranty named by name. Above all, the book impresses with its prosaic and easy-to-understand writing style, which sets it apart from other historical works.

Conquest used Soviet newspapers and official publications as sources, as well as reports from people who had left the Soviet Union. The historical sources Conquest could use were accordingly limited. After the archives of the Soviet Union became partially accessible in 1991, the Stalinist phase of Soviet history was also re-examined. The Trotskyist historian Vadim Rogovin , to whom these archives were accessible, accused Conquest of "numerous errors and falsifications" and questioned his conclusions. They would be based on the work of anti-communist ideologues of the 1930s.

The book, which appeared in 1968 - in the middle of the Vietnam War and the Prague Spring - had an immediate impact. It appeared five years before Solzhenitsyn's The Gulag Archipelago (1974) and is considered to be a pioneering work on the time of the Great Terror . This study was the first to systematically look at these events. These political events were already being discussed intensively in the West, literary representations such as A Day in the Life of Ivan Denissowitsch and Koestler's Solar Eclipse (1940) had been printed, and the problem of the historical role of Stalin’s terror and the possibilities of overcoming it were also among intellectuals like Maurice Merleau-Ponty (Humanism and Terror, 1947) an important topic. Conquest's book, however, had a different quality and was written in an understandable manner for a broader audience. Conquest Alexander Michailowitsch Orlow's The Secret History of Stalin's Crimes , but also Khrushchev's secret speech on the XX. Party Congress of the CPSU and many other publications. It is not so much to reveal Conquest's merit, but rather to create an overview.

While the book was well received in conservative circles and considered a powerful documentary, it was controversial among leftists. Above all, Conquest's equation of Lenin and Stalin met with much opposition. He did not see Stalin as a dictatorial outgrowth, but as an inevitable consequence of Marxism-Leninism . Scottish journalist Neal Ascherson commented in 1969:

“Everyone by then could agree that Stalin was a very wicked man and a very evil one, but we still wanted to believe in Lenin; and Conquest said that Lenin was just as bad and that Stalin was simply carrying out Lenin's program. ”

“You could admit that Stalin was a very dangerous and very bad person, but we wanted to keep believing in Lenin; and Conquest said that Lenin was just as bad and Stalin was just carrying out Lenin's program. "

- Neal Ascherson

Conquest's sharp criticism of western leftists and intellectuals, whom he describes as Stalin's puppets, was particularly controversial. Above all, the equation and blanket condemnation of many was criticized. The historian Kevin Tyner Thomas writes:

"Conquest lumps together the revisionists, labeling them as Stalinists, semi-Stalinists, and those who lack the mind to understand the enormity of Stalin's criminality."

"Conquest lumps everyone into one pot, the revisionists, for him Stalinists, the half-Stalinists and those who lack insight into the vast extent of Stalin's crimes."

- Kevin Tyner Thomas

The subject of criticism was also Conquest's handling of sources. The allegation was that Conquest did not properly distinguish between eyewitness accounts and mere rumors. In addition, the numbers of Conquests in particular were criticized. He speaks of 8 million dead during the Great Purge and 17 million dead between 1930 and 1938 who were killed by Stalin. The numbers partly contradict his later work The Harvest of Death , which again names increased numbers. With a new edition in 1990 Conquest increased the numbers again. In 1990, however, the camp lists were published, from which the French Stalinism researcher Nicolas Werth calculated significantly lower numbers of victims and gave Conquest's numbers as 14 times too high. Conquest has consistently defended its numbers. On the occasion of the new edition in 1990, the historian Norman Davies referred to the flawedness and incompleteness of the official Soviet documents and sharply attacked Conquest's critics who relied on this material. It is “depressing” that some historians are still trying to put Stalin's crimes into perspective: “Your predecessors in the 1930s, like Harold Laski , at least had the excuse that they were distracted by fascism. The current generation has no such excuse. ”In fact, Conquest has been attacked by Russian historians for still using low casualty rates, Davies said.

Based on the sources at the time, Conquest focused his investigation on the purges against the elites of the Soviet Union. In the context of the Great Terror, however, these repression measures only play a subordinate role. The overwhelming majority of the victims were ordinary citizens of the Soviet Union who were persecuted due to “mass operations” such as NKVD order No. 00447 .

Harvest of death

Conquest's second major work, The Harvest of Death, describes the Holodomor , the famine in Ukraine between 1929 and 1933. The book is roughly divided into three parts: First, there is an outline of Ukrainian history since the October Revolution and describes the socio-cultural state of Ukraine. The second part describes the famine and the third part, Conquest turns to the West. He accuses the western left and intellectuals of denying the terror in Ukraine and not condemning it sharply enough.

The book had a great impact and was very well received, especially in conservative circles. LA Kosiński called the book carefully researched and an important contribution to history, as well as a warning against fanatics in positions of power. In addition, it is a book that raises many important questions. Historians and leftists, on the other hand, criticized the book as flawed from the start and accused Conquest of mixing research and fiction. Leftists criticize his lax approach to fascism. Historians also criticize the overly simple analogy that Conquest draws between hunger in Ukraine and the concentration camps in the Third Reich.

The numbers mentioned by Conquest are particularly controversial. He gives the number of deaths caused by the Holodomor as 14.3 million, by far the highest number mentioned so far. Dana G. Dalrymple spoke of 5.5 million dead in 1964. She had calculated this number as an average of 20 estimates by other authors, including sources from the Third Reich. Ralph Barnes , a Herald Tribune journalist who toured Ukraine in 1933, wrote of a million deaths. The future Pulitzer Prize winner Walter Duranty of the New York Times names 2 million. Conquest takes up Duranty's work, but calls him a liar and Stalin's friend. Other sources using official Soviet figures give even lower casualty figures. Around six to eight million victims of the famine are now accepted.

The book is based on a variety of different sources, such as eyewitness accounts, official Soviet documents and press releases, reports and analyzes by Soviet and foreign academics, and Soviet fictional sources. Nevertheless, Conquest's handling of sources is criticized. For example, the book Black Deeds of the Kremlin , which was published in two volumes by the Ukrainian Association of Victims of Russian Communist Terror in 1951 and 1953, is cited as a source over 55 times . In the book Symon Vasyljowytsch Petljura is glorified and the pogroms are denied, in which between 1918 and 1920 between 35,000 and 100,000 Jews were killed. Ukrainian fascists like Roman Schuchewytsch are also consistently viewed positively in the book. All of the images in the book that illustrate the Ukrainian famine were later found to be fake. He also quotes the book The Ninth Circle by Olexa Woropay 18 times: It was published by the youth organization Stepan Banderas , who later participated with the battalion "Nightingale" in the murder of 7,000 communists and Jews in Lemberg on June 30, 1941 and collaborated with National Socialist Germany. Other sources later turned out to be incorrectly dated or falsified.

It is further criticized that Conquest cites the forced collectivization of agriculture as the sole reason for the famine and thus gives all responsibility to Stalin. The drought in Ukraine in 1930 and 1931 and a devastating typhus epidemic are not taken into account by Conquest. In contrast, he cites typhoid as a main cause of casualties in the figures for the deaths in Ukraine during the Second World War.

Late work

Even in his later works, Conquest remains true to himself and his themes. For example, Reflections on a Ravaged Century , published in 1999, revisits the history of the Soviet Union and criticizes Western leftists and academics. Eric Hobsbawm in particular is directly criticized in this book. The book is celebrated in conservative criticism.

In his 2006 work The Dragons of Expectations , Conquest repeats his findings on the Stalin era and the Holodomor. Above all, however, he fixes his criticism of the United Nations and the European Union. As in almost all of his books, Western leftists and academics are criticized again. So he writes:

“Those things that have made Western society (especially America and Britain) great have been and are being eaten away from within by ideological elites and political-economic plunderers who are undermining the morality and institutional order on which our system of liberty and law has been based. "

“Everything that made Western society (especially America and Britain) great has been and is being dissolved from within by ideological elites and political and economic looters who undermine the moral and institutional order on which our system of freedom and law is based. "

- Robert Conquest

Many of the statements he makes in the book met criticism in the media. Journalist Christopher Hitchens criticized the fact that Conquest describes the concentration camps of Italian fascism as "generally not very inhuman" and the Ethel and Julius Rosenberg trial as " genuine ".

Honors

In 1993 Conquest was awarded the Jefferson Lectureship , a prestigious award from the state of California for service to humanity. In the same year he received the Richard Weaver Award for Scholarly Letters and the Alexis de Tocqueville Award , which is presented by the National Endowment for the Humanities .

In 1994 he was elected a member of the British Academy's Royal Society of Literature . He also became a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies .

In 1956 he became Officer of the Order of the British Empire , in 1996 he became Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George .

In 1997 he received the Michael Braude Award for Light Verse from the American Academy of Arts and Letters for his fictional life's work. He also received the 2001 Rita Ricardo-Campbell and W. Glenn Campbell Uncommon Book Award for his fictional work .

In 2005, handed over US President George W. Bush Conquest, the Medal of Freedom ( "The Presidential Medal of Freedom"), the highest civilian honor in the United States. In the same year he was accepted by Viktor Yushchenko in the order of Yaroslav Mudry as a knight of the fifth class.

In 2012 Conquest received the Dan David Prize .

bibliography

Non-fiction
  • A World of Difference (1955)
  • Where Do Marxists Go from Here? (1958, as JEM Arden)
  • Common Sense About Russia (1960)
    • German: Soviet Russia: The system and the people. Translated by Jochen Voss. Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, Cologne 1962, DNB 450818934 .
  • The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities (1960)
  • Courage of Genius: The Pasternak Affair (1961)
  • Power and Policy in the USSR (1961)
  • The Last Empire (1962)
  • Marxism Today (1964)
  • Russia After Khruschev (1965)
    • German: Russia after Khrushchev. Translated by Barbara Bortfeldt. Rütten & Loening, Munich 1965, DNB 450818942 .
  • The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (1968; also: The Great Terror: A Reassessment , 1990; also: The Great Terror: 40th Anniversary Edition , 2008)
    • English: Comrade Kirov died in the beginning: purges under Stalin. Translated by Jutta Knust and Theodor A. Knust. Droste, Düsseldorf 1970, DNB 456290400 . Also as: The Great Terror: Soviet Union 1934–1938. Translated by Andreas Model. Langen-Müller, Munich 2001, ISBN 3-7844-2415-5 .
  • Where Marx Went Wrong (1970)
  • The Nation Killers (1970)
    • German: Stalin's genocide: Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Caucasians. Translated by Peter Aschner. Europaverlag, Vienna 1974, ISBN 3-203-50485-5 .
  • The Human Cost of Soviet Communism (1970)
  • Lenin (1972; also: VI Lenin )
  • The Russian tradition (with Tibor Szamuely, 1974)
  • Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (1978)
  • The Abomination of Moab (1979)
  • Present Danger: Towards a Foreign Policy (1979)
  • We and They: Civic and Despotic Cultures (1980)
  • The Man-made Famine in Ukraine (1984, with James Mace, Michael Novak and Dana Dalrymple)
  • What to Do When the Russians Come: A Survivor's Guide (1984, with Jon Manchip White)
  • Inside Stalin's Secret Police: NKVD Politics, 1936-1939 (1985)
  • The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (1986)
    • English: Harvest of Death: Stalin's Holocaust in Ukraine 1929–1933. Translated by Enno von Löwenstern. Langen Müller, Munich 1988, ISBN 3-7844-2169-5 .
  • Tyrants and Typewriters: Communiques in the Struggle for Truth (1989)
  • Stalin and the Kirov Murder (1989)
  • Stalin: Breaker of Nations (1991)
    • German: Stalin: the total will to power. Translated by Andrea von Struve and Udo Rennert. List, Munich and Leipzig 1991, ISBN 3-471-77234-0 .
  • History, Humanity, and Truth (1993)
  • Reflections on a Ravaged Century (1999)
  • The Dragons of Expectation: Reality and Delusion in the Course of History (2004)
Novels
  • A World of Difference (1955)
  • The Egyptologists (1965; with Kingsley Amis )
  • Demon's Don't (1999)
Poetry
  • Poems (1956)
  • Back to Life: Poems from behind the Iron Curtain as translator / editor (1958)
  • Between Mars and Venus (1962)
  • Arias from a Love Opera, and Other Poems (1969)
  • Casualty Ward (1974)
  • Coming Across (1978)
  • Forays (1979)
  • New and Collected Poems (1988)
  • Demons Don't (1999)
  • Penultimata (2009)
  • A Garden of Erses limericks, as Jeff Chaucer (2010)
  • Blokelore and Blokesongs (2012)
Short stories
  • The Veteran (in: Analog Science Fiction → Science Fact, October 1965 )
  • A Long Way to Go (in: Analog Science Fiction → Science Fact, November 1965 )
  • No Planet Like Home (in: Galaxy Magazine, April 1970 )
Anthologies and essay collections (as editor)
  • New Lines: An Anthology (1956)
  • New Lines 2 (1963)
  • The Politics of Ideas in the USSR (1967)
  • Industrial Workers in the USSR (1967)
  • Soviet Nationalities Policy in Practice (1967)
  • Agricultural Workers in the USSR (1968)
  • The Soviet Police System (1968)
  • The Soviet Political System (1968)
  • Religion in the USSR (1968)
  • Justice and the Legal System in the USSR (1968)
  • The Robert Sheckley Omnibus (1973)
  • The Last Empire: Nationality and the Soviet Future , 1986)
  • Political and Ideological Confrontations in Twentieth-Century Europe: Essays in Honor Of Milorad M. Drachkovitch (1996, with Dušan J. Djordjevich)

Spectrum (science fiction anthology series, with Kingsley Amis ):

  • Spectrum (1961)
  • Spectrum II (1962)
  • Spectrum III (1963)
  • Spectrum IV (1965)
  • Spectrum V (1966)

literature

Web links

Commons : Robert Conquest  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Robert Conquest, Seminal Historian of Soviet Misrule, Dies at 98
  2. ↑ Original: “The Great Terror” and “The Harvest of Sorrow” offered the definitive account of the crimes of the Stalin era. William Grimes: Robert Conquest, Historian Who Documented Soviet Horrors, Dies at 98. In: The New York Times . 4th August 2015.
  3. ↑ portrait. Hoover Institution, Stanford University.
  4. ^ A b c d e Andrew Brown: Scourge and Poet, a profile of Robert Conquest . In: The Guardian . February 15, 2003 ( guardian.co.uk [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  5. ^ A b Rob Jackaman: Broken English / breaking English: A Study of Contemporary Poetries in English . Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8386-3991-7 , pp. 50-51 ( Google Books [accessed July 24, 2008]).
  6. ^ Robert Conquest: Patriot, Poet and Prophet . In: Standpoint magazine . September 2008 ( standpointmag.co.uk [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  7. ↑ Robert Conquest. The New York Review of Books, accessed July 24, 2009 .
  8. ↑ Merritt Moseley: Understanding Kingsley Amis . University of South Carolina Press, Columbia 1993, ISBN 0-87249-861-1 , pp. 3 ( Google Books [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  9. ^ Robert Conquest, historian-obituary Daily Telegraph , Aug. 4, 2015
  10. ^ Robert Conquest: Where Ignorance Isn't Bliss. In need of a lesson. In: National review Online. October 1, 2001, archived from the original on February 12, 2009 ; accessed on July 24, 2009 .
  11. ↑ Elizabeth Farnsworth: A Ravaged Century. In: OnlineNewsHour. December 24, 1999, archived from the original on November 11, 2012 ; accessed on July 24, 2009 .
  12. ↑ a b Jay Nordlinger: Conquest's Conquest. A man and his admirers - author Robert Conquest. In: National review Online. November 9, 2005, archived from the original on May 13, 2008 ; Retrieved July 24, 2009 .
  13. ↑ Hanspeter Born, Vera Hartmann: The man who was right . In: Die Weltwoche . tape 40 , 2005 ( weltwoche.ch [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  14. ↑ a b Christopher Hitchens : Robert Conquest's realities and delusions . In: The Times Literary Supplement . February 15, 2006.
  15. ↑ George Walden: History on his side . In: Telegraph . November 6, 2005 ( telegraph.co.uk [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  16. ↑ Moseley, pp. 95-97
  17. ↑ Ian Hamilton: The Oxford companion to twentieth-century poetry in English . Ian Hamilton, 1994, ISBN 0-19-866147-9 , pp. 98-99 ( Google Books [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  18. ↑ Robert Conquest. In: Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009, accessed July 24, 2009 .
  19. ^ Adam Piette: Pointing to East and West . In: Tim Kendall (ed.): The Oxford handbook of British and Irish war poetry . Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-928266-1 , pp. 636-638 ( Google Books [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  20. ↑ JA Parker: The Great Terror at 40 - Remembering the Western Elites' Enchantment with Communism . In: Lincoln Review . tape 12 , no. 4 (July-August), 2008 ( lincolnreview.com [PDF]).
  21. ↑ a b c Kevin Tyner Thomas: On the Politics of Interpretation: Robert Conquest and the Historiography of Stalinism . In: Radical History Review . tape 52 , 1992, ISBN 0-521-42215-9 , pp. 121-131 ( Google Books [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  22. ^ Vadim Sakharovich Rogovin : Was there an alternative ?, Vol. 4, 1937. Year of Terror. Mehring, 1998, ISBN 3-88634-071-6 , p. 17 and p. 364 f.
  23. ^ A b c John A. Armstrong: Book Review: The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties by Robert Conquest . In: Russian Review . tape 28 , no. 3 , July 1969, p. 344-345 , JSTOR : 127401 .
  24. ^ Hana R. Alberts: High Five With Robert Conquest . In: Forbes Magazine . October 13, 2008 ( forbes.com [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  25. ↑ Robert Conquest. Spartacus Educational, accessed July 24, 2009 .
  26. ↑ RW Davies: Reply to Robert Conquest . In: New Left Review . tape I , no. 225 (September – October), 1997 ( abstract ).
  27. ↑ Nicolas Werth: Gulag: The true numbers . In: L'Histoire . tape 193 , 1993, pp. 38-51 .
  28. ^ Robert Conquest: Stalin's Victims: A Reply to RW Davies . In: New Left Review . a, 1997 ( Questia [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  29. ↑ Michael Young: Grand Inquisitor . In: Reason Online . (August / September), 2000 ( reason.com [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  30. ↑ Original: “Their predecessors in the 1930's, such as Harold Laski, at least had the excuse that they were distracted by fascism. The present generation has no such excuse. " Norman Davies: Now it can be told, even in Russia. In: The New York Times . May 13, 1990
  31. ↑ Compare, for example, Rolf Binner, Bernd Bonwetsch , Marc Junge: Massenmord und Lagerhaft. The other story of the great terror (= publications of the German Historical Institute Moscow. Volume 1). Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-05-004662-4 , here p. 11.
  32. ↑ Harvest of Death. P. 321.
  33. ^ A b c L. A. Kosiński: Robert Conquest: The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine . In: Population and Development Review . tape 13 , no. 1 , March 1987, p. 149-153 , JSTOR : 1972127 .
  34. ^ Peter Wiles: Stalin's Two Famines . In: The New York Review of Books . tape 34 , no. 5 , March 26, 1987, ISSN  0028-7504 .
  35. ^ Robert Conquest: The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-famine . Oxford University Press, 1986, ISBN 0-19-505180-7 , pp. 300 ( Google Books [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  36. ↑ Dana G. Dalrymple: The Soviet famine of 1932-1934 . In: Europe-Asia Studies . tape 15 , no. 3 , 1964, pp. 250-284 , doi : 10.1080 / 09668136408410364 .
  37. ↑ Ralph W. Barnes: Grain Shortage in the Ukraine Results in Admitted Failure of the Soviet Agricultural Plan . In: New York Herald Tribune . January 15, 1933, p. 5 .
  38. ^ Walter Duranty: Russian Hungry but not Starving . In: New York Times . March 31, 1933, p. 13 .
  39. ↑ Harvest of Death. Pp. 318-320.
  40. ^ SG Wheatcroft: Ukrainian Famine . In: Problems of Communism . (March / April), 1985, pp. 133 .
  41. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica online.
  42. ↑ Tottle, pp 5-6
  43. ^ Arch Getty: Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-1938 . Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 5 .
  44. ↑ Tottle, p 97
  45. ↑ Peter Wiles: “Harvest of Sorrow” . In: The New York Review of Books . tape 34 , no. July 12 , 1987 ( nybooks.com [accessed July 24, 2009]).
  46. ^ NK: Review of Robert Conquest's Reflections on a Ravaged Century. (No longer available online.) In: Associated Content. April 7, 2006, formerly in the original ; accessed on July 24, 2009 .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.associatedcontent.com
  47. ^ Richard M. Ebeling: Book Review: Reflections on a Ravaged Century by Robert Conquest. In: Freedom Daily. April 2000, archived from the original on November 10, 2012 ; accessed on July 24, 2009 .
  48. ^ Richard M. Ebeling: Book Review: The Universal Hunger for Liberty: Why the Clash of Civilizations Is Not Inevitable . In: The Freeman . March 2005, p. 43 .
  49. ↑ Українські новини: Украина отметила День памяти жертв голодоморов и политрепрессий. gala.net, November 28, 2005, accessed July 24, 2009 .
personal data
SURNAME Conquest, Robert
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Conquest, George Robert Ackworth (full name)
BRIEF DESCRIPTION British poet and historian
DATE OF BIRTH July 15, 1917
PLACE OF BIRTH Great Malvern , Worcestershire , England
DATE OF DEATH 3rd August 2015
Place of death Palo Alto , California