Holodomor

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Commemorative coin of Ukraine, 2005
Molotov (standing) and Stalin (center) at the 17th party congress of the CPSU , 1934

The term holodomor ( Ukrainian Голодомор , literally: "killing by hunger") describes a severe famine in Ukraine in 1932 and 1933, which killed between three and fourteen million people. Since independence in 1991, Ukraine has been trying to achieve international recognition of the Holodomor as genocide , but this assessment is still controversial today.

Famine in the Soviet Union
Pedestrians and corpses of starving farmers on a street in Kharkiv in 1933; Photo: Alexander Wienerberger
1933 near Kharkiv - text on the sign: "The excavation of graves is expressly prohibited at this point"; Photo: Alexander Wienerberger
The harvest is transported away by so-called red trains , 1932

background

In December 1927 the XV. Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (then known as the Communist All- Union Party ( Bolsheviks )) decided on measures to accelerate industrialization of the Soviet Union , which were laid down in the first five-year plan for the period 1928 to 1932. With regard to agriculture, which is traditionally rooted in the village community, there was a transition from previous experiments of voluntary collectivization to forced collectivization . One goal was to increase agricultural production in order to be able to use export surpluses from this sector to finance the importation of economic goods required for industrialization, such as equipment for industrial companies. It was hoped that these increases would be achieved through the amalgamation of agricultural areas, the introduction of new cultivation methods and mechanization. Furthermore, the private storage that was still possible in the period of the New Economic Policy should be prohibited.

In the course of forced collectivization, there was initially a reduction in the area under cultivation and a shrinkage in the number of livestock. As a result of the loss of animal traction and the lack of mechanical traction, the area used for cultivation of grain in the Ukraine decreased by 14 percent, and the harvest volume fell by as much as 20 percent. In addition, the collective farms and sovkhozes achieved a significantly lower yield per hectare than the individual farmers.

Josef Stalin pursued the political goal of suppressing the Ukrainian will for freedom and consolidating Soviet rule in Ukraine. The Soviets had previously taken radical action against the Ukrainian intelligentsia and the Ukrainian clergy . Between 1926 and 1932, 10,000 clerics were murdered by the communists. In 1931 alone, more than 50,000 intellectuals were deported to Siberia , including the country's 114 most important poets, writers and artists. Thereafter, the Soviets turned against the peasantry, which continued to stubbornly oppose collectivization and re-education. In the sense of “ Russification ”, the Ukrainian culture should be eradicated so that only a Soviet culture would remain.

course

The Holodomor began with a severe drought in the winter and spring of 1931/1932. Despite the hunger of the rural population, the party cadres increased the tax quota for farmers to 44 percent. While in 1931 7.2 million tons of grain were requisitioned in the Ukraine , this figure sank to 4.3 million tons in 1932. Most of the grain was sold on the world market to procure foreign currency. The proceeds were used for the industrialization of the Soviet economy and for armaments purposes.

After Anne Applebaum , Stalin decided in autumn 1932 to use the hunger crisis specifically against Ukraine. The borders were closed so that refugees from hunger could not leave the country. In 1932 Stanislaw Redens (head of the Ukrainian GPU and brother-in-law of Stalin's wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva ), together with the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine (KPU), Stanislaw Kossior , was given the task of developing a plan as part of collectivization To liquidate “ Kulaks and the Petlyur counter-revolutionaries” . Two thousand heads of collective farms were then arrested. When the grain quota had not been reached in January 1933, Redens was replaced in the Ukraine .

On November 28, 1932, the Politburo of Ukraine under Vyacheslav Molotov , who later became the Soviet Foreign Minister, as agent of General Secretary Stalin, decided to impose “penalties in kind” and introduce “black lists” against opposing peasants. As a result, the food demands on the farmers were drastically forced. Household items such as soap and kerosene were also confiscated in the villages. Bolshevik brigades looked for hidden food. Villages were systematically pillaged. As a result of fines, many farming families lost all of their property and ended up in the cities begging for food. There was cannibalism among the population .

International reporting

In 1929 Paul Scheffer was the first western journalist to report on the famines as a result of forced collectivization in the Berliner Tageblatt . In 1930 he published the book Seven Years of the Soviet Union . In it Scheffer dealt objectively, but for the first time in detail, to Stalin's methods and attempts to cover up the "millions of starvation deaths". The book was published in several countries. Scheffer was unable to produce any evidence of the systematic mass murder , as he had been refused entry into the Soviet Union at the end of 1929.

The Soviet government actively tried to hide what was happening from the world community. However, journalists Gareth Jones , Malcolm Muggeridge and William Henry Chamberlin continued their research. On March 29, 1933, at an international press conference organized by Scheffer in Berlin, they informed the world public about the extent of the Soviet famine. In addition to German correspondents, there were press representatives from The Sun , Chicago Daily News , The Yorkshire Post , Manchester Guardian , Time Magazine , The New York Times and La Liberté . On the same evening or in the next few days, they all published almost identical editorials on the front pages about the famine.

In Austria, Cardinal Theodor Innitzer was one of the few public figures to protest against the Holodomor and founded an international and non-denominational aid campaign. On August 20, 1933, he published an urgent appeal to "the world against starvation in Russia" on the front page of the high-circulation Viennese newspaper Die Reichspost . He also organized conferences to make the public aware of the Holodomor.

The journalist Walter Duranty , among others , had contradicted the emergency calls in the New York Times on March 31, 1933 (“Russians Hungry but not Starving”). It was later intensely discussed whether Duranty , the pro-Stalinist Pulitzer Prize winner, had deliberately lied in his report. A group of socialists from England, including the Irish writer George Bernard Shaw , who were touring the Soviet Union at the time, falsely reported "full restaurants and lavish menus". The Hungarian writer Arthur Koestler, however, noted about his observations in Kharkiv :

“Every day funerals passed under my window in Charkov. Not a single word about the local famine, epidemics, the extinction of entire villages. One got a feeling of dreamlike unreality; the newspapers seemed to be talking about a very different country that had no connection whatsoever with the daily life we ​​led, and so did the radio. "

In 1935, Gareth Jones was murdered under mysterious circumstances in Mongolia while on another research trip. Paul Scheffer then published an obituary on August 16, 1935 on the front page of the Berliner Tageblatt . In the article he blamed Stalin for the death of Jones and also dealt with the so-called starvation exports . He described that the Soviet Union exported grain despite the extreme shortage in order to be able to buy large quantities of machines and tools from Western countries. Germany, Great Britain and the USA in particular benefited economically from these imports and exports. From 1936 at the latest, western countries competed politically for Stalin's favor. At least there is evidence that negative reporting on the Soviet Union was officially prohibited in Germany. The American journalist and Pulitzer Prize winner Hubert Renfro Knickerbocker had already illustrated the political and economic connections between starvation exports in his book Der Rote Handel lures , which was also published in various countries.

In 1935, Ewald Ammende published a book in Vienna with the title Must Russia hunger? with photos taken by the Austrian chemist Alexander Wienerberger in 1933 while working in Soviet Ukraine.

During the German occupation of Ukraine, from September 13, 1942 to January 24, 1943, the weekly newspaper Novaja Ukraina (New Ukraine) in Kharkov published five articles by Stepan Sosnowyj , which analyzed the events of collectivization and the famine from 1932–1933 in dedicated to Ukraine. In 1943–1944, his article The Truth About the 1932–1933 Famine in Ukraine was reprinted in several other newspapers in the German-occupied territories. This article appeared in English translation in 1953 in the first volume of The Black Deeds of the Kremlin , along with other evidence of the mass extermination of Ukrainian peasants in the late 1920s and early 1930s.

In the post-war years, extensive research into the Holodomor was carried out in the United States and Canada. In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan funded Holodomor research for political reasons (one of the most active researchers was J. Mace), which in turn sparked an ideological counter-campaign in Soviet Ukraine. In December 1987, the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine, Vladimir Shcherbitsky , officially recognized mass hunger for the first time in the Soviet Union from 1932 to 1933, but with the remark that the Soviet power had done everything possible to help the peasants. In 1988 the writer Borys Olijnyk spoke in his speech at the XIX. Party conference on Holodomor.

Work-up

Casualty numbers

According to calculations by the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences published in November 2008, the number of victims in Ukraine was around 3.5 million people. A study by Ukrainian demographers in 2015 found a number of victims of around 4.5 million people, consisting of 3.9 million direct victims and 0.6 million birth losses. Other estimates put 2.4 million to 7.5 million deaths from starvation. The British historian Robert Conquest puts the total number of victims at up to 14.5 million people. In addition to the starvation deaths, the victims of collectivization and deculakization and the loss of births were also included.

Controversy within Ukraine

Dmitri Medvedev and Viktor Yanukovych at the “Memorial to the Victims of Hunger” in Kiev

After the collapse of the Soviet Union , dealing with the memory of the Holodomor became a key issue of national identity for Ukraine . Ukrainian-speaking politicians tried to advance the historical, political and personal analysis of the topic and to attract international attention to the Holodomor. Viktor Yushchenko made the subject one of his most important tasks. The processing was rejected by the Russian government . The Russian President Dmitri Medvedev turned down the invitation to a commemorative event in Kiev in November 2008, as this served to “alienate the Ukrainian people from the Russian”. In the following debate, Russia sees itself in the historical succession of the Soviet Union.

Pro-Russian politicians like Viktor Yanukovych , on the other hand, tried to maintain close ties with Russia . Dealing with the past in the sense of a historical investigation and assessment was undesirable under his leadership. Many Ukrainian archives were closed again. This policy was also supported by the Russian government. Coming to terms with Stalinist crimes is seen as a threat to Russia's raison d' être, according to which Ukraine is part of the Russian sphere of influence. Since the revolution of dignity in spring 2014, the memory of the Holodomor has once again played an important role in the official memory of Ukraine and is also used politically in the ongoing conflict with Russia.

Historical debate

In the Soviet Union, the famine was completely concealed for a long time. Under Brezhnev , the famine on the Volga was discussed in Soviet school books, but hunger in Ukraine was never discussed. People also did not talk to one another about the events “out of fear of the communist state power”. The topic is only slowly being discussed publicly and historically classified. While Ukraine's archives have been slowly opening since 2009, many Russian files, particularly those of the Interior Ministry and the KGB , remain inaccessible to the public.

At the center of the debate is the question of whether the famine was the aim or consequence of Stalinist policies. Ukrainian historians in particular emphasize that it was a matter of a famine systematically organized by Stalin's regime. The Hungarian historian Miklós Kun wrote:

“It was a deliberate and systematic murder of millions of people. (…) While in Ukrainian villages the desperate people, mad from hunger, ate the green branches of the trees, Ukrainian food was sold at low prices in other Soviet republics on Stalin's orders as part of the so-called 'Soviet dumping '. "

The Ukrainian historian Vasyl Marotschko from the Center for Research into the Genocide at the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine comes to the conclusion, based on evaluated Stalin telegrams, that the dictator and his confidante Kaganowitsch and Molotov have been directly responsible . Again and again there is talk of a solution to “the Ukrainian question”. The ethnic component is emphasized again and again in this context.

In contrast, Russian historians in particular argue that the famine was primarily the result of a poor harvest, which was exacerbated by the collectivization of agriculture and the associated resistance of Ukrainian peasants. Alexander Watlin criticizes the term Holodomor because it is used to politically instrumentalize the tragic consequences of collectivization that extends beyond Ukraine. He also points out that the famine of that time did not only affect Ukraine, but also other areas of the Soviet Union, so it was not organized specifically against the population of Ukraine.

The German sociologist Gunnar Heinsohn stated that in the Ukraine, Kazakhstan and some Caucasus regions , where there was strong resistance to expropriations in the context of forced collectivization, this should be broken with the means of a deliberately induced famine worsened by forced evacuation. The independence movements of these peoples should also be hit in this way. The Communist Party also prevented the hungry from being taken care of and from leaving the hungry areas. So Vyacheslav Menschinsky , head of the GPU secret police , gave the order to unconditionally implement the grain procurement plan. The Ukrainian secret police under Vsevolod Balyzkyj then had hunger refugees shot and their food and cattle confiscated. Heinsohn describes this entire procedure as a mixture of politicide and genocide , the portrayal of which is often defamed as "malicious anti-communism " for political reasons .

Rating as genocide

Map of the countries that recognize the Holodomor as genocide of Ukrainians

Position of Ukraine

In 2003 and 2006, the Ukrainian parliament officially declared the Holodomor a genocide against the Ukrainian people.

Under President Viktor Yushchenko , the Ukrainian government endeavored to have the Holodomor recognized worldwide as a genocide against the Ukrainian people. In addition to Ukraine , Australia , Ecuador , Estonia , Georgia , Canada , Colombia , Latvia , Lithuania , Mexico , Paraguay , Peru , Poland , Portugal , Hungary and the Vatican have officially recognized the Holodomor as genocide.

Position of the USA and Israel

On September 23, 2008, the House of Representatives of the US Congress recognized the Holodomor in Ukraine from 1932–1933 as genocide against the Ukrainian people. According to another source, the genocidal character of the Holodomor was clearly described, but the designation as genocide was deliberately avoided.

Israel sees the Holodomor as “the greatest tragedy of the Ukrainian people”, but rejects the use of the word “genocide” as it was not “annihilation based on ethnic criteria”.

Position of Russia

The Russian government , the most important legal successor to the Soviet Union, continues to reject the term genocide for the Holodomor. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation , not only members of the Ukrainian people fell victim to hunger in the Soviet Union from 1932 to 1933, but also Russians and members of numerous other ethnic groups . According to Wikileaks publications , Andrew, Duke of York , told US Ambassador Tatiana Gfoeller in Bishkek that Russia was pressuring governments in other countries, particularly Azerbaijan, not to recognize the Holodomor as genocide.

Council of Europe position

In April 2010, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) rejected the term genocide, which the Ukrainian opposition wanted, in its resolution on the famine of the 1930s in the USSR. The then Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych had previously appeared before the meeting and also spoke out against the definition of genocide.

Recognition of the Holodomor as a crime against humanity

On October 23, 2008, the European Parliament passed a resolution recognizing the Holodomor as a crime against humanity .

Scientific discourse

In 1953, the Polish human rights activist Raphael Lemkin , who after the Second World War drafted the UN Convention against Genocide and defined the term genocide , wrote a detailed report on the Holodomor . In it he names the Ukrainian famine "the classic example of a Soviet genocide". According to Lemkin, Stalin used hunger purposefully to break the resistance of the peasants. Gerhard Simon and Ernst Lüdemann argued similarly . On the other hand, the Eastern European historian Jörg Ganzenmüller , chairman of the Ettersberg Foundation , took the view that the famine was not a deliberately planned genocide. Political scientist Svetlana Burmistr points to the high number of starvation deaths outside Ukraine and believes that the involvement of large numbers of Ukrainians in the crime speaks against classifying it as genocide. With regard to the famine in Kazakhstan from 1932–33 , the historian Robert Kindler points out that the mass extinction was not a specifically Ukrainian but a Soviet phenomenon. Mortality was significantly higher in Kazakhstan , where 1.5 million people starved to death, a third of the population. Therefore, “there can be no question of a planned genocide against the Ukrainian population”. The historians Franziska Davies also doubts that the term genocide is appropriate for the events.

In 2019, the historian Anne Applebaum supported the thesis with new documents that it was a planned and targeted mass murder. The aim was to prevent another peasant uprising like the one in 1918/19. Whether one calls the famine "a genocide, a crime against humanity or simply an act of mass terror" is "less important today".

etymology

The word holodomor is made up of the two Ukrainian words holod and mor . Holod ( голод ) means “hunger”. Mor is an old East Slavic word and means "death", "plague", "mass death". In modern usage of both Ukrainian and Russian, it means "extermination". Holodomor literally means “starvation”. There is no linguistic connection with the word Holocaust .

reception

photograph

  • Photographs from the holdings of the Central State Cinema-Photo-Phono-Archive of Ukraine (Ukrainian: Центральний державний кінофотофоноархів України)
  • Ukrainians in Hungary: photos from Holodomor
  • Holodomor. / Documentaries, broadcasts

Movies

  • Neznanyj holod (The Unknown Hunger) (Незнанный Голод) , Canada, 1983
  • Zhnyva rozpatschu (Harvest of Despair) (Жнива розпачу) Canada, 1984,
  • '33, svidtschennya otschewydtsiw ('33, eyewitness accounts) (33-й, свідчення очевидців) , Ukraine, 1989
  • Pid znakom bidy (Under the Sign of Bad luck ) (Під знаком біди) , Ukraine, 1990
  • Holod - 33 (Hunger - 33) (Голод - 33) , Ukraine, 1991
  • Velykyj slam (The Great Change) (Великий злам) , Ukraine, 1993
  • Pieta (Пієта) , Ukraine, 1994
  • Ukrajins'ka nitsch 33-ho (Ukrainian Night of 1933) (Українська ніч 33-го) , Ukraine, 2002
  • Tschas temrjavy (The Time of Darkness, Час темряви) , Ukraine, 2003
  • Holodomor 1932–1933 rr (Голодомор 1932–1933 р.р.) , Hungary, 2004
  • Velykyj Holod (The Great Hunger) (Великий Голод) , Ukraine, 2005
  • Tajna propavshej perepisi (The Secret of the Lost Census) (Тайна пропавшей переписи) , Russia , 2005
  • Holodomor. Tehchnologiji genozydu (Holodomor. Technologies of Genocide) (Голодомор. Технології геноциду) , Ukraine, 2005
  • Holodomor. Ukrajina (Holodomor. Ukraine) (Голодомор. Україна) , Ukraine, 2005
  • Holodomor. Ukrajina 20-ho stolittja (Holodomor. Ukraine in the 20th century) (Голодомор. Україна ХХ століття)
  • Zhyty zaboroneno (It is forbidden to live) (Жити заборонено)
  • Holodomor. Famine in Ukraine 1932–33 , photo film, Austria, 2010
  • Bitter Harvest (Holodomor - Bitter Harvest) , Canada, 2017
  • The Soviet Story , a documentary film about the Holodomor among other things, was a. a. shown in the European Parliament
  • Mr. Jones (2019), internationally co-produced feature film by Agnieszka Holland


Exhibitions

  • Holodomor - the unknown genocide 1932–1933 , 13357 Berlin, bunker on Blochplatz, corner of Badstrasse and Hochstrasse, November 29 to December 16, 2009
  • Holodomor. Famine in Ukraine 1932–33 , from November 19, 2010, Catholic University Community Graz, Leechgasse 24, 8010 Graz, Austria

See also

literature

  • Anne Applebaum : Red Famine. Stalin's War on Ukraine. Allen Lane, London 2017, ISBN 978-0-385-53885-5 .
  • Levon Chorbajian, George Shirinian (Eds.): Studies in Comparative Genocide. St. Martin's Press, New York NY 1999, ISBN 0-312-21933-4 .
  • Robert Conquest : The Harvest of Sorrow. Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. The University of Alberta Press and Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies , Edmonton 1987, ISBN 0-88864-128-1 .
  • Robert Conquest: La grande terreur. Les purges staliniennes des années 30. Précédé des Sanglantes moissons. La collectivisation des terres en URSS. R. Laffont, Paris 1995, ISBN 2-221-06954-4 .
  • Robert W. Davies, Stephen G. Wheatcroft: The Years of Hunger. Soviet Agriculture 1931-1933 (= The Industrialization of Soviet Russia. Vol. 5). Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke et al. a. 2004, ISBN 0-333-31107-8 .
  • Robert W. Davies, Stephen G. Wheatcroft: Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932-33 - A Reply to Ellman. In: Europe-Asia Studies. Vol. 58, No. 4, 2006, ISSN  0038-5859 , pp. 625-633, doi: 10.1080 / 09668130600652217 .
  • Gabriele De Rosa, Francesca Lomastro (ed.): La morte della terra. La grande “carestia” in Ucraina nel 1932–33 (= Media et Orientalis Europe. Vol. 2). Atti del Convegno, Vicenza, 16-18 October 2003. Viella, Roma 2004, ISBN 88-8334-135-X .
  • Miron Dolot: Who Killed Them and Why? In Remembrance of Those Killed in the Famine of 1932–1933 in Ukraine. Harvard University - Ukrainian Studies Fund, Cambridge MA 1984, ISBN 0-9609822-1-3 .
  • Miron Dolot: Execution by Hunger. The Hidden Holocaust. Norton, New York NY et al. a. 1987, ISBN 0-393-30416-7 .
  • Miron Dolot: Les affames. L'holocauste masqué, Ukraine 1929–1933. Éditions Ramsay, Paris 1986, ISBN 2-85956-514-0 .
  • Barbara Falk: Soviet Cities in Famine 1932/33. State nutrition policy and urban everyday life (= contributions to the history of Eastern Europe. Vol. 38). Böhlau, Cologne a. a. 2005, ISBN 3-412-10105-2 (also: Bochum, University, dissertation, 2003).
  • Ruth Gleinig, Ronny Heidenreich: Places of Remembrance of the Holodomor 1932/33 in Ukraine. Published by Anna Kaminsky / Federal Foundation for Coming to terms with the SED dictatorship . Leipziger Universitäts-Verlag, Leipzig 2008, ISBN 978-3-86583-261-0 .
  • Andrea Graziosi: The Great Soviet Peasant War. Bolsheviks and Peasants, 1917-1933. Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Ukrainian Research Institute - Harvard University, Cambridge MA 1996, ISBN 0-916458-83-0 .
  • Wsevolod W. Isajiw (Ed.): Famine-Genocide in Ukraine, 1932-1933. Western Archives, Testimonies and New Research. Ukrainian Canadian Research and Documentation Center, Toronto 2003, ISBN 0-921537-56-5 .
  • Victor A. Kravchenko : I Chose Freedom. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York NY 1946.
  • Robert Kuśnierz: Ukraina w latach kolektywizacji i Wielkiego Głodu (1929-1933). Grado, Toruń 2005, ISBN 83-89588-35-8 .
  • Eugene Lyons : Assignment in Utopia . Harcourt, Brace & Co, New York NY 1937, ( excerpt ).
  • James E. Mace: Soviet Man-Made Famine in Ukraine. In: Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons, Israel W. Charny (Eds.): Century of Genocide. Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views (=  Garland Reference Library of Social Science. Vol. 772). Garland, New York NY et al. a. 1997, ISBN 0-8153-2353-0 , pp. 78-112.
  • James E. Mace: Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation. National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918–1933. Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the US, Cambridge MA 1983, ISBN 0-916458-09-1 .
  • Rudolf A. Mark , Gerhard Simon , Manfred Sapper, Volker Weichsel, Agathe Gebert (eds.): Destruction through hunger. The Holodomor in Ukraine and the USSR. Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-8305-0883-2 .
  • Stephan Merl : Was the famine of 1932–1933 a consequence of the forced collectivization of agriculture or was it deliberately brought about as part of nationality politics? In: Guido Hausmann, Andreas Kappeler (Ed.): Ukraine. Present and history of a new state (= nations and nationalities in Eastern Europe. Vol. 1). Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, Baden-Baden 1993, ISBN 3-7890-2920-3 , pp. 145–166.
  • D'ann R. Penner: Stalin and the “Ital'ianka” of 1932–1933 in the Don Region. In: Cahiers du Monde Russe. Vol. 39, 1998, ISSN  0008-0160 , pp. 27-67 ( digitized version ).
  • Oksana Procyk, Leonid Heretz, James E. Mace: Famine in the Soviet Ukraine 1932–1933. A Memorial Exhibition. Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 1986, ISBN 0-674-29426-2 .
  • Timothy Snyder : Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin , Beck 2011, ISBN 978-3-406-62184-0 .
  • Georges Sokoloff (Ed.): 1933, L'année noire. Témoignages sur la famine in Ukraine. Albin Michel, Paris 2000, ISBN 2-226-11690-7 .
  • Douglas Tottle: Fraud, Famine and Fascism. The Ukrainian Genocide Myth from Hitler to Harvard. Progress Books, Toronto 1987, ISBN 0-919396-51-8 .
  • Stephen G. Wheatcroft: Towards Explaining the Soviet Famine of 1931-1933. Political and Natural Factors in Perspective. In: Food and Foodways. Vol. 12, H. 2/3, 2004, ISSN  0740-9710 , pp. 104-136.
  • Journal of Eastern Europe: Special issue on the Holodomor (content and abstracts; PDF; 51 kB)
  • Dmytro Zlepko (Ed.): The Ukrainian Hunger Holocaust. Stalin's secret genocide in 1932/33 against 7 million Ukrainian farmers in the mirror of secret files of the German Foreign Office. A documentation. Wild, Sonnenbühl 1988, ISBN 3-925848-03-7 .

Web links

Commons : Holodomor  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Holodomor  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Remarks

  1. ↑ In doing so, he consciously used the Deus-lo-vult call of the crusades and replaced the meaning with a thoroughly charitable one: Let's go on fraternal action together before it's too late! God wants it! Reichspost from Aug. 20, 1933, p. 1.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Source: A. Markoff: Famine en USSR . Russian Comercial Institute, Paris, 1933.
  2. ↑ Manfred Hildermeier: History of the Soviet Union, 1917–1991: emergence and decline of the first socialist state. C. H. Beck, 1998, ISBN 978-3-406-43588-1 , p. 399.
  3. ↑ a b c Raphael Lemkin: Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine ( Memento of March 2, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Raphael Lemkin Papers, The New York Public Library, 1953.
  4. ↑ Oleksa Eliseyovich Zasenko: Ukraine Encyclopædia Britannica , 2015
  5. ↑ Gerhard Gnauck: "Holodomor": Stalin's most brutal instrument of murder was hunger. In: welt.de . November 22, 2013, accessed October 7, 2018 .
  6. ↑ Historian Anne Applebaum Details Stalin's War Against Ukraine: 'I Believe It Was Genocide' Radio Free Europe, September 25, 2017.
  7. ↑ Реденс Станислав Францевич. In: Хронос: всемирная история в интернете. Retrieved April 27, 2015 (Russian).
  8. ↑ a b c Robert Baag: Murder through hunger. Deutschlandfunk, November 28, 2007
  9. ↑ Robert W. Davies, Stephen G. Wheatcroft: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931-1933. Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, ISBN 978-0-230-23855-8 .
    Ukraine's enduring Holodomor horror, when millions starved in the 1930s euronews.com, November 22, 2013.
  10. ^ Gareth Jones Research Papers , accessed April 25, 2017.
  11. ^ Paul Scheffer: Seven Years of the Soviet Union. Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig 1930, p. 21 f.
  12. ^ Paul Scheffer: Seven years in Soviet Russia: With a retrospect 1932. Macmillan, 1932, Editorial Reviews.
  13. ^ Matthias Heeke: Travel to the Soviets: Foreign Tourism in Russia 1921–1941. LIT Verlag, Münster 2003, pp. 52–53.
  14. ↑ Margaret Siriol Colley: Gareth Jones. More Than a Grain of Truth. Newark 2005, p. 22 f.
  15. ↑ Gareth Jones: Famine in Russia? Berliner Tageblatt from April 1, 1933, on garethjones.org, accessed April 26, 2017.
  16. ↑ Ukraine: Only Innitzer protested against the starvation of millions. In: kath.net . November 17, 2018, accessed December 11, 2018 .
  17. ^ Leonid Luks: History of Russia and the Soviet Union: From Lenin to Yeltsin. Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 2000, pp. 264-265.
    Lynne Viola: The Unknown Gulag: The Lost World of Stalin's Special Settlements. Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 15 f.
    Hellmuth Vensky: Stalin's Crime of the Century. In: Die Zeit online, February 1, 2010.
  18. ↑ HR Knickerbocker (German by Curt Thesing): The red trade beckons. Rowohlt, 1931.
    Hubert R. Knickerbocker . In: Die Zeit , No. 29/1949.
  19. ↑ Ewald Ammende: Does Russia have to go hungry? People and the fate of the people in the Soviet Union . Wilhelm Braumüller University Publishing House, Vienna 1935.
  20. ^ Josef Vogl: Alexander Wienerberger - Photographer of the Holodomor . In: Documentation Archive of Austrian Resistance (Ed.): Feindbilder , Vienna 2015 (= yearbook 2015), pp. 259-272.
  21. ↑ Stepan Sosnowyj: The Truth about the Famine . In Semen Pidhainy (ed.): The Black Deeds of the Kremlin: A White Book , Vol. 1. Ukrainian Association of Victims of Russian Communist Terror, Toronto 1953 pp. 222-225.
  22. ↑ Голодомор 1932–1933 годов в Украине унес жизни 3,5 млн человек - НАН Украины. Korrespondent.Net, November 12, 2008, accessed April 28, 2015 (Russian). Donald Bloxham, A. Dirk Moses (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-923211-6 , p. 396.
  23. ^ Anne Applebaum: Red Famine. Stalin's War on Ukraine. Doubleday, New York 2017, ISBN 978-0-385-53885-5 , p. 280.
    Demography of a man-made human catastrophe: The case of massive famine in Ukraine 1932–1933. Website of the Institute of History of Ukraine. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
  24. ↑ Stalinism - Silent Destruction , Die Zeit 48/2008 of November 20, 2008.
  25. ↑ Дмитрий Медведев направил послание Президенту Украины Виктору Ющенко, посвящёное.посвящёное.пороблематике November 2008
  26. ↑ Viktor Yushchenko in conversation: “Perhaps the greatest humanitarian catastrophe”. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . August 20, 2008.
  27. ↑ Ruh (November 22, 2008). Ukrainian-Russian dispute over the «Holodomor». The New Zurich Times
  28. ^ Paul Goble : Window on Eurasia: Closing Soviet-Era Archives, Yanukovich Aide Insists 'Ukrainians Know All They Need to Know about Their Past' Window on Eurasia, May 6, 2010
  29. ^ Andreas Kappeler: Ukraine and Russia: Legacies of the imperial past and competing memories. Journal of Eurasian Studies, 5 (2014)
    Alexander J. Motyl : Deleting the Holodomor: Ukraine Unmakes Itself.
  30. ↑ Stalin's Famine War. In: Tages-Anzeiger from September 8, 2017.
  31. ^ Ernst Lüdemann: Stalin's campaign against the farmers in German school books . State Center for Political Education Baden-Württemberg
  32. ↑ Fanny Facsar: When Stalin turned people into cannibals, Spiegel Online, January 20, 2007
  33. ↑ Ukraine wary of KGB terror file BBC, June 29, 2009
  34. ^ Malte Lehming: Stalin's suppressed starvation in the Ukraine. Tagesspiegel, May 5, 2014
  35. ↑ Cf. Alexander Watlin: The unfinished past: About dealing with communist history in Russia today. In: Yearbook for Historical Research on Communism . 2010, ISSN  0944-629X , pp. 279-294.
  36. ↑ Balitchi Apollonovich Vsevolod (1892–1937) , accessed on March 1, 2015.
    Юрий Шаповал (Yuri Shapowal): “It is absolutely necessary”: the year 1933 . Панорама "Дня" No. 19/2003 of February 1, 2003; on day.kiev.ua, accessed March 1, 2015.
  37. ↑ Gunnar Heinsohn: Lexicon of Genocides (= rororo. Rororo-current 22338). Rowohlt-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Reinbek near Hamburg 1998, ISBN 3-499-22338-4 .
  38. ^ Andreas Kappeler: Brief history of the Ukraine. CH Beck, Munich 2009, ISBN 3-406-58780-1 , p. 274.
  39. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20041229204050/http://www.aph.gov.au/SENATE/work/journals/2003/jnlp_114.pdf
  40. ↑ parliament.ge , on parliament.ge
  41. ↑ Journals of the Senate 2nd Session, 37th Parliament (PDF)
  42. ↑ [1]
  43. ↑ SPRAWOZDANIEKOMISJI USTAWODAWCZEJorazKOMISJI SPRAW ZAGRANICZNYCHo projekcie uchwały w sprawie rocznicy Wielkiego Głodu na Ukrainie (druk nr 90) ( Memento of 28 October 2008 at the Internet Archive ) PDF at www.senat.gov.pl
  44. ↑ Russia and Ukraine argue over famine
  45. ↑ H / 6288 Országgyűlési határozati javaslat az 1932-33. évi nagy ukrajnai éhínség 70. évfordulójára
  46. ↑ [2]
  47. ↑ a b Israel cannot recognize the Holodomor / Golodomor as genocide
  48. ↑ Holodomor Resolution passes US House of Representatives
  49. ↑ NOTE on the US government position regarding the Holodomor as genocide: ( Memento from December 1, 2017 in the Internet Archive )
  50. ↑ Zhenis Kembayev: problems of legal succession from the Soviet Union to the Russian Federation ( Memento of 30 August 2017 Internet Archive )
  51. ↑ МИД РФ: признание Голодомора 1932-33 гг геноцидом является искажением истории ( Memento of 21 November 2007 at the Internet Archive )
  52. ↑ WikiLeaks reveals sensitive US talks Kyivpost.com, December 3, 2010.
  53. ↑ Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe does not recognize Holodomor as genocide , Ukraine-Nachrichten, April 28, 2010
  54. ↑ Resolution of the European Parliament of October 23, 2008 on the memory of the Holodomor, the knowingly caused famine of 1932/1933 in Ukraine Protocol of the EU resolution regarding the Holodomor of October 23, 2008, accessed on October 29, 2009
  55. ↑ Quoted from Timothy Snyder : Bloodlands. Europe between Hitler and Stalin. 3. Edition. CH Beck, Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-406-62184-0 , p. 74.
  56. ↑ [3]
  57. ↑ The Holodomor as Genocide - Facts and Controversies ( Memento of the original from October 29, 2019 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Retrieved January 20, 2018. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.europaimunterricht.de
  58. ^ Svetlana Burmistr: Holodomor - the organized starvation death in Ukraine 1932-1933 . In: Wolfgang Benz (Ed.): Prejudice and Genocide. Ideological premises of genocide . Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2010, ISBN 978-3-205-79085-3 , p. 85 f.
  59. ↑ Robert Kindler: Stalin's nomads. Rule and Hunger in Kazakhstan , Hamburger Edition, Hamburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-86854-277-6 ; the same: whoever does not work should not eat. In: Die Zeit from August 8, 2019, p. 40.
  60. ^ Franziska Davies: Ukrainian history of victims. In: sueddeutsche.de. Süddeutsche, January 12, 2020, accessed on January 14, 2020 .
  61. ^ Anne Applebaum: "Red Hunger". Stalin's war against Ukraine. Siedler Verlag, Munich 2019, the quote p. XXXIV.
  62. ↑ Контекст трагедії (1929-1933): офіційні фотодокументи ( memento of the original from October 21, 2019 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / archives.gov.ua
  63. ↑ ГОЛОДОМОР ( Memento from March 5, 2016 in the Internet Archive )
  64. ↑ Фільми про голодомор / movies about Holodomor (Ukrainian famine)
  65. ↑ [4]
  66. ↑ digka.org.ua ( Memento from January 26, 2015 in the web archive archive.today )
  67. ↑ George Mendeluk: Bitter Harvest. February 24, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017 .
  68. ^ Exhibition in Berlin 2009 ( Memento from March 5, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) on berliner-unterwelten.de
  69. ↑ Stefan Plaggenborg : Dead rehearse no riots . Review, FAZ May 18, 2019.
  70. ↑ The Harvest of Sorrow, table of contents (English)