Czechoslovak Resistance 1939–1945

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Commemorative plaque at the Petschek Palace in Prague for the victims of the National Socialist occupation of the country 1938–1945

The Czechoslovak resistance against National Socialism emerged against the background of the events of 1938–1939. Twenty years after the founding of the state by Czechs and Slovaks on October 28, 1918, Czechoslovakia's state integrity was threatened as a result of the Munich Agreement . Czechoslovakia was able to invoke various international treaties, but these turned out to be unsuitable: the Little Entente , a treaty with Romania and Yugoslavia , did not provide for an alliance in the event of an attack by the German Reich, in contrast to the alliance and friendship treaty with France from 1924. France, however, was unable to face the German Reich alone. An assistance pact with the Soviet Union of May 16, 1935 also existed, but was only to come into force if France fulfilled its obligations. Czechoslovakia did not have a military alliance with Great Britain , but viewed the UK as an ally because of the assistance treaties between Great Britain and France - the Locarno Treaties .

However, while the expansion plans of the dictator Adolf Hitler during the Munich crisis were becoming increasingly apparent and the Sudeten German Party of Konrad Henlein increased their pressure, particularly Britain and France decided to appeasement measures as appeasement gone down in history. On September 29, 1938, the Munich Agreement was signed, which provided for the annexation of the Sudeten German regions of Czechoslovakia to the German Reich. Under pressure from France and Great Britain, the government of Czechoslovakia finally accepted the agreement on September 30, 1938 and did not make use of the mobilization in Czechoslovakia declared on September 23, 1938 . The military occupation of the Sudetenland by the Wehrmacht took place from October 1 to 10, 1938, to the cheers of its German residents, other areas with a Polish population were lost to Poland and a Hungarian majority to Hungary. On March 15, 1939, the “ remaining territory of the Czech Republic ” was occupied by the Wehrmacht, Czechoslovakia was dissolved as a state and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was proclaimed. (The area had previously belonged to Austria-Hungary.) As early as March 14th, Slovakia was an independent state.

Preliminary remarks

In contrast to the movement against the Habsburg Monarchy in Austria-Hungary and for the establishment of a separate Czech state during the First World War , which is called “the first resistance” ( první odboj ) in both Czech and Slovak language , and in contrast to the resistance after 1948 against the communist regime, also known as “the third resistance” ( třetí odboj ), the term “the second resistance” ( druhý odboj ) was coined in Czech literature for the period from 1939 to 1945 .

The resistance to the expansion policy of the Hitler Empire led to various diplomatic activities abroad, especially on the part of the Czechoslovak government in exile in London . Partisan struggles against the Wehrmacht by the Czechoslovak Army in Exile on both the Western and Eastern Fronts, and thirdly the resistance on the territory of the former Czechoslovakia, led in return to large-scale punitive actions and massacres against the Czech population.

President Edvard Beneš was after the March events of 1939 ( destruction of the rest of the Czech Republic ) with a few employees in the United States, where he first tried to set up a provisional "Directory", but in the summer of 1939 he moved the activities to Paris, where on November 17th the Czechoslovak National Committee was established and recognized by France and later also by Great Britain as the country's representative. Even before the defeat and occupation of France , a move of the seat of the committee to London was planned and carried out gradually. The readiness to recognize a regular government was soon signaled in London. Beneš's cabinet was finally recognized as the provisional government on July 21, 1940, and as the de iure Czechoslovak government on July 18, 1941. This government-in-exile, recognized by the Allies and enjoying the same position in London as the governments of the Netherlands, Norway and Greece, made a major contribution to the restoration of Czechoslovakia after the end of the war within the borders before the Munich Agreement (with the exception of the Carpathian Ukraine ).

Although the chronological sequence as well as the character of the anti-Nazi resistance were different in the then de facto separate areas of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and Slovakia , one generally speaks of the “Czechoslovak resistance”. This applies to the relevant literature as well as to official government sources today, which do not make any distinction here. The reason for this lies in the international law recognition of these two areas as a unit, which represents the continuity of the Czechoslovak state since 1918 (until 1993). In this regard, President Beneš presented the internationally recognized so-called "Theory of Legal Continuity", which he presented on June 26, 1940 on a radio broadcast in London.

The Czechoslovak politicians assumed this continuity and invoked it by consistently using the term “Czechoslovakian”: Czechoslovak government in exile , Czechoslovak army in exile , Czechoslovak national committee . In principle, the military units were also called “Czechoslovakian” ( 311st RAF bomber squadron : Czech 311. československá bombardovací peruť RAF , English № 311 (Czechoslovak) Bomber Squadron ), the contract on their establishment with the government of the United Kingdom spoke about Czechoslovakia. Even today's government agencies consistently use the phrase “(second) Czechoslovak resistance” ( druhý československý odboj ) for this period.

The dating of the resistance during the Second World War usually begins with March 1939, i.e. with the so-called occupation of the rest of Czech Republic and the formation of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, which is synonymous with the de facto end of Czechoslovak statehood - the time before that seems to be history for this reason not of much interest. This is criticized by some historians in the Czech Republic, pointing out that some of the later resistance groups formed earlier. The largely unknown resistance in the Sudetenland also started earlier.

The communist resistance

In Czech literature, a distinction is made between bourgeois, pro-western resistance and communist resistance, i. H. the groups led or ruled by the communist party. The background is not due to the resentment-based aversion to the country's communist past, but to the actual behavior of the communist leadership, which led to their isolation within the resistance movement. After the signing of the German-Soviet non-aggression pact on August 23, 1939, the Communist Party represented the Comintern line in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia as well as in Slovakia until the summer of 1941 , according to which the main enemy was Great Britain, France and their allies; the restoration of pre-war Czechoslovakia was replaced by other concepts.

In Slovakia, the idea of ​​restoring the pre-war state, i.e. H. the common statehood, having faded into the background: in the beginning the Slovak communists even considered the solution of a "Soviet Slovakia" including integration into the Soviet Union (following the example of the Baltic states in summer 1940).

It was only after the German invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941 that the political line of the Comintern and the Soviet party leadership changed and was passed on to the Czech and Slovak communists accordingly. The resistance and struggle against Nazi Germany was now in the foreground instead of the previously propagated goal of a socialist revolution, so that cooperation between the democratic and communist camps was made possible, while at the same time cooperation between the London government in exile and the communist party leadership in Moscow Exile got better.

The Czechoslovak Communist Party (KSČ) only represented the Czech communists during the war because the Slovak communists had become organizationally independent in 1939 and founded their own party, the Communist Party of Slovakia (KSS). The KSČ was the only Czechoslovak political party that operated illegally on the territory of the Protectorate; it was chaired by a total of four successive committees. Well-known personalities included Julius Fučík , Jan Zika and Eduard Urx .

After 1948 the role of the communist resistance in the history of the communist era in Czechoslovakia was overrated and recorded, and some personalities, such as Fučík, were greatly heroized and glorified.

Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

Several resistance groups worked in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, some of which were active before the Protectorate was established. These included the left-wing Petiční výbor Věrni zůstaneme (Petitions Committee We remain loyal, PVVZ), which has its roots in the social democratic "Workers' Academy " ( Dělnická academy ) and in the "Support Committee for Democratic Spain" (Výbor na pomoc Demokratickému) from Španělsk the 1930s, where over 2,000 Czech and Slovak interbrigadists fought; PVVZ united socialists, social democrats, trade unionists and left-wing intellectuals. Already at the end of 1938 the women's group Ženská národní rada joined the resistance and joined the Petiční výbor Věrni zůstaneme. In May 1938 some of them took part in a committee of the same name, which collected signatures “to protect the republic against Hitler” and then maintained informal contacts with one another.

The group Politické ústředí (Political Headquarters, PÚ), which was strongly oriented towards President Beneš and the London government in exile and was originally conceived as an umbrella organization of the resistance, was one of them. Beneš, who went abroad on October 20, 1938, initiated a group of party politicians that met several times, twice before March 1938, from which the Politické ústředí resistance group emerged in July 1939 . The same circumstances accompanied the initiative of Arnošt Heidrich in November 1938 , from which the Parsifal resistance group emerged .

In a certain sense, the Communist Party must also be mentioned here: KSČ's activities in Slovakia were officially suspended on October 9, 1938, in Bohemia and Moravia on October 20, 1938, and on December 27, 1938, the party was officially dissolved. While the party leadership emigrated to Moscow (and also to London), the party went illegally in Czechoslovakia without, however, first becoming active.

However, one can only speak of pronounced resistance activity after the invasion of the Wehrmacht. Immediately after the occupation of the country, the resistance organization Obrana národa (Defense of the Nation ON) was formed, which quickly became the largest resistance group at the time. It was made up of officers from the defunct Ministry of Defense and the army, including members of the General Staff and the Czechoslovak Military Intelligence Service , and was designed as a kind of underground army, including a military-oriented organizational structure; The group Tři králové (Three Kings) also worked in the vicinity of the Obrana národa . As early as the beginning of 1940, an umbrella organization, the Ústřední vedení odboje domácího (Central Management of the Resistance at Home, ÚVOD) group, was mutually established by the most important groups , which was supposed to unite and coordinate the various resistance groups. In addition, there were other organizations such as Rada tří (Council of Three), Zpravodajská brigáda (Intelligence Brigade), Sokolská revoluční rada (Revolutionary Council The Falcons), Národní hnutí pracující mládaže (National Movement of Working Youth) and several others with a regional character. In September 1941, after some groups had been weakened by arrests, ÚVOD wanted to form a new umbrella organization for all groups, the Přípravný revoluční národní výbor (Provisional Revolutionary National Committee). The intended realization was only partially successful due to the repression after Reich Protector Reinhard Heydrich took power in Prague and, among other things, proclaimed martial law.

Only after the attack on the Soviet Union did communist resistance appear in June 1941. After the "party newspaper" had been published illegally from 1939, a new illegal party leadership of the KPTsch was constituted in June 1941 .

From 1943 onwards, some new resistance organizations were formed, which in some points were programmatically close to the ideas of the CPC, in particular the Předvoj group (vanguard). At the beginning of 1945, after several negotiations with some illegal organizations, the Czech National Council was constituted , which, in cooperation with the union council that had formed, planned the preparations for a national uprising and finally took part in the Prague uprising .

The activities of the resistance groups included many areas: collecting information for the government in exile, acts of sabotage, organizing strikes, producing and distributing illegal magazines, operating secret channels for contact with foreign countries (both with Western countries and later also with the Soviet Union; there were, among other things, the broadcasters Sparta I , Sparta II and Libuše ), support for special agents from the West and the Soviet Union, who were deposed from the air, support for the persecuted and their families, contacts with partisans, organizing Border crossing, but also theoretical work on the future economic and political future and orientation of a liberated Czechoslovakia.

For the period from March 1939 to September 1941 alone, 66 illegal newspapers and magazines of all kinds have been documented, including V boj , Český kurýr , Informační služba národního osvobození and the communist newspaper Rudé právo , as well as the detective novels disguised as series brochures (cover of a dime novel with illegal content).

Compared with the Obrana národa or Politické ústředí groups , the older group Petiční výbor Věrni zůstaneme (PVVZ) was least affected by the arrests, which enabled them to continue their theoretical and programmatic work. In the period from 1939 to 1941, the PVVZ prepared the programmatic document Za Svobodu , which was linked to left-wing social democratic documents from 1933. It was not just about a platform for resistance, but specifically about how to shape a future society after the end of the war. This program was also discussed on the part of the illegal press. The contemporary witness and historian Václav Vrabec compares it very positively with the later Kaschau program influenced by the communist party . In this context, the discussion about the Germans also played an important role - about their share in the occupation and repression, about their subsequent deportation and the burgeoning anti-German mood in the population, especially after some excesses of the Gestapo (massacres in Lidice and Ležáky ) reflected the reality in the Protectorate (contained in the document in the chapter “Vina a trest,” [Guilt and Punishment]).

The resistance groups in the protectorate maintained close contacts with the Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London. After this was recognized by Great Britain on July 21, 1940, the Ministry of Defense was established in London shortly afterwards under the direction of Division General Sergěj Ingr ; Colonel and later Brigadier General František Moravec was appointed to head the so-called II. Department, that is, the military intelligence service of the government in exile . This department was responsible for all contacts with the resistance groups. The transmission of information from the protectorate concerned reports on the state of the regime, the mood among the population, planned sabotage and similar actions, but also in particular information about troop movements and plans for the armaments industry. These reports were sent by radio or courier to Moravec, the head of the military intelligence service, and thus practically directly to President Beneš - and at the same time they were important intelligence material for the Allies and highly valued by them.

For a while there were even links to the protectorate government. General Alois Eliáš , who was appointed Prime Minister on April 27, 1939 , made contact with the resistance, he even had a role in the management structure of Obrana národa , and informed not only the resistance groups, but also the government-in-exile in London about the situation in London through their channels the government and the problem with the German authorities. Shortly after the arrival of the newly appointed Deputy Reich Protector Reinhard Heydrich, however, he was arrested and later executed.

The whole time the Czech resistance was exposed to persecution by the authorities of the protectorate, especially the Gestapo . There were several waves of arrests, beginning with the so-called Action Grid , Action Albrecht I , especially at the turn of the year 1939/1940 (where the groups PVVZ, ON and PÚ were particularly affected), in spring 1942 (ON and others) and 1944 (PÚ and others). The strongest wave of arrests took place after the so-called Operation Anthropoid , the assassination attempt on Reich Protector Heydrich at the end of May 1942, and dragged on until autumn.

Most of the members of the resistance sentenced to death were executed in Berlin-Plötzensee after they had mostly been convicted by German courts. There were a total of 677 people, and thus - after the Germans - the second largest group of nationalities among those executed.

Partisan movement

Like the resistance movement itself, the partisan movement is basically divided into a communist-oriented movement (or one led from Moscow) and a non-communist movement connected with London. However, there was also a collaboration, made more difficult only by the geographical conditions. Both the Protectorate and Slovakia were quite flat, small and relatively densely populated areas, where partisan resistance soon reached its limits. The exception was some mountainous, sparsely populated areas in Slovakia (the High and Low Tatras ). In the Protectorate there were some regions in Moravia. The formation of the partisan groups began in the second half of 1942, but it was not until 1944 that more significant troops were formed. In addition to local citizens who had to hide and Soviet prisoners who had fled, there were also fighters who were deliberately dropped as paratroopers who were sent from both London and Moscow. The information on the total strength of the partisan units is not precise; it amounted to around 14,000 people in April 1945, but a large proportion of them were Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian prisoners who had been liberated or had fled.

Prague uprising

At the beginning of May 1945 there were revolts against the German occupation forces in Bohemia and Moravia. The center was in Prague and the Prague Uprising is also the most famous, but fierce fighting occurred in many places. The uprising began on May 1, 1945 in Přerov and soon encompassed 37 cities and 240 municipalities, from May 5, 1945 also Prague. About 30,000 armed people in Prague and about 10,000 outside Prague, including about 14,000 partisans, were involved on the side of the insurgents; they were briefly supported by the well-armed Russian Liberation Army of General Vlasov in an estimated strength of 10,000 to 14,000 men after they had switched sides. The losses amounted to around 2,300 fighters killed and 3,700 civilians killed in Prague and 8,000 people outside. With the liberation of Prague on May 9, 1945, the uprising came to an end; there was isolated fighting in some areas, especially in the border area with Germany, but until May 15, 1945.

Resistance in Slovakia

Opposition activities from 1939 to 1944

In the nominally independent satellite state of Slovakia from 1939 to 1945 (unofficially also known as the Slovak state), it took longer until resistance to the separation from Czechoslovakia arose because the population - unlike in the protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia - enjoyed a feigned statehood ; in addition, there were no actions by the Slovak Communists (KSS).

Only after the establishment of the totalitarian system in Slovakia could the first resistance groups emerge, such as the Ursíny-Lettrich group (the politicians Ján Ursíny and Jozef Lettrich ), Zaťko, or the Flóra group from the circle of the politician Vavro Šrobár . Some of them later founded the Democratic Party .

The most radical resistance group in Slovakia were the communists. The illegal Communist Party of Slovakia (KSS), which split off from the KSČ , was probably the most persecuted political group in Slovakia during the Second World War. The attitude of the Slovak communists towards Slovak independence and Czechoslovakia changed several times and depended on the current position of Moscow. KSS supported the restoration of Czechoslovakia until the Soviet Union recognized Slovakia in September 1939. After that, the Slovak communists took an anti-Beneš stance and even called for a “Soviet Slovakia”. However, when the Soviet Union recognized the Czechoslovak government in exile in 1941, the KSS advocated the restoration of a federalized Czechoslovakia.

The most important opposition force in Slovakia after the communists were the agrarians, whose supporters were mostly Slovak Lutherans who felt discriminated against by the Catholic-dominated Ludak regime. The Slovak agrarians kept in touch with Milan Hodža in Paris. In 1940 Ján Lichner , one of its leading members, fled to the West and joined Beneš's group of emigrants in London. The relationship between the Slovak agrarians and Beneš was problematic, however, as they considered the adherence of his government-in-exile to a unified Czechoslovak nation to be unacceptable. In 1941 and 1942 there was little active resistance in Slovakia. However, the situation changed with the participation of Slovakia in the war against the Soviet Union and the western allies. The alliance with Nazi Germany in general, and the war against the Soviet Union in particular, was unpopular among most Slovaks, considering the Russians and Ukrainians as their Slav compatriots.

After the German defeat in Stalingrad , there was a mass desertion of Slovak units. These then joined either the Czechoslovak army in the Soviet Union or Russian and Ukrainian partisan units. In December 1943, the bourgeois bloc (mainly agrarians) and communists agreed within the framework of the so-called Christmas Agreement to found a joint resistance platform called the Slovak National Council . This was led by three communists - Gustáv Husák , Ladislav Novomeský , Karol Šmidke - and three bourgeois ones - Ján Ursíny , Jozef Lettrich and Matej Josko .

Even after the reorientation of the communists after Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941, it was a long time before the two camps, the bourgeois and the Moscow-oriented communist camp, were able to take joint action against the Tiso regime. At the turn of the year 1941–1942, the attempt to form a Central National Revolutionary Committee ( Ústřední národně revoluční výbor ), which should bring together different groups from both camps, failed . It was not until December 1943 that the representatives of the two groups were able to come to an understanding, so that the so-called Christmas Agreement could be concluded, which formed the basis for the establishment of the Slovak National Council .

Slovak national uprising

The uprising area (orange) at the beginning of the national uprising

In Slovakia, the preparations for an armed uprising ran in two main lines: the first was the line of the Slovak Defense Minister Ferdinand Čatloš , who had been building an East Slovak army since the beginning of 1944, which should open the passage for the Red Army at the right moment. President Jozef Tiso was also informed about Čatloš's plans, who did not join Čatloš, but let him do it. The second line represented the preparations of the chief of staff of the ground troop command in Banská Bystrica, Lieutenant Colonel Ján Golian . According to the original plans of both lines, the insurrection action should begin after coordination with the Red Army and after all preparations have been completed. However, Moscow did not react to the offers and premature partisan actions provoked the Germans to intervene. The uprising, which began on August 29, 1944, was proclaimed by members of the army without any contribution from the communists. In the initial phase, the area of ​​the uprising was estimated to have an area of ​​22,000 km² and 1.7 million inhabitants, but shrank rapidly due to opposing pressure and at the beginning of October 1944 only comprised about 7,000 km² and 300,000 inhabitants. The armed units of the uprising formed a 60,000-strong Slovak army and 18,000 politically and organizationally inconsistent partisans.

Resistance in the Sudetenland

The resistance in the Sudetenland , which was annexed to the German Reich in November 1938, already existed before that, supported by numerous members of the social democratic DSAP , but also by the communists and trade unions, from which illegal underground groups such as Waltro or Meerwald later formed and with high losses have carried away. A total of about 185 resistance groups are known from the Sudeten area, the losses amount to more than a thousand people executed. Many Sudeten Germans can also be found in the lists of special agents who were deployed from the air over the area of ​​the Protectorate. One of the most successful agents was Paul Thümmel , who had been working with the Czechoslovak intelligence service since 1936.

This chapter of Sudeten German history is largely unknown and little researched. As the Sudeten German author Leopold Grünwald emphasizes, even though the GDR regime first benefited from the thousands of expelled anti-fascists from the Sudetes, GDR historiography only wrote about "solidarity actions" and reduced the importance of resistance and thus, among other things, "collective guilt." “, Which was cited as the reason for the evictions. The research project "Forgotten Heroes" , founded in 2007 by the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague on behalf of the Czech government, deals with the processing of this historical section.

Operations from the air

Heydrich's car after the assassination attempt, May 27, 1942

The first deposition of special agents over the territory of the Protectorate, organized by the government-in-exile in London, was the so-called Operation Benjamin on the night of April 16-17, 1941. After the arrival of the new Deputy Reich Protector Reinhard Heydrich in Prague on September 27th In 1941 the actions against the Czechoslovak resistance were intensified. The structure of the resistance groups was weakened, among other things the most important group, Obrana národa , was almost wiped out. Under these circumstances, the government-in-exile in London decided to intensify the deployment of special forces in the Protectorate with the aim of strengthening diversion and sabotage, in particular Operation Wolfram . This culminated in the so-called Operation Anthropoid of December 1941 and the subsequent assassination attempt on Heydrich on May 27, 1942.

The groups removed from Great Britain via the Protectorate, a total of 33 with approx. 91 people (and a few in Slovakia), were planned by the Ministry of the Interior in London and carried out in cooperation with the Special Operations Executive (SOE), which for this purpose the 138th special squadron of the RAF (№ 138 Special duties Squadron) used; The SOE formed a Czechoslovak section (Czech Section MY, later the Central European Section), which was to coordinate all actions with the government-in-exile for this purpose. From the summer of 1941, the so-called "Special Group D" ( Zvláštní skupina D ), which was subordinate to the Czechoslovak Ministry of Defense in London, was involved in the preparation and training of the agents .

The operations from the Soviet Union in the Protectorate were often insufficiently prepared, the Soviet authorities did not have a good knowledge of the situation in the Protectorate and the tactics of the German defense. The target addresses were often already arrested and turned middlemen who, on behalf of the German Abwehr, were able to disorient the Soviet agencies with their transmitters; The agents who had jumped off were arrested shortly after their arrival or, because some were deposed via Poland and were supposed to reach the Protectorate by land, even before they entered the Protectorate area. The Kammler operation of October 1942 can be mentioned as a representative of the insufficient preparation of the intelligence service : the Gestapo department specializing in fictitious actions, which was in possession of the encryption keys, arranged for the agent Emil Kammler to be dispatched under a false pretext Absprung was arrested immediately and later died in Mauthausen concentration camp .

Some actions that were carried out from the Soviet Union in the area of ​​the Protectorate also caused displeasure between the government-in-exile in London and the Soviet Union, who were considered allies. The first actions in the late summer of 1941, above all the Aroš , which took place in six flights and was organized by the Soviet military intelligence service GRU , as well as an operation by the NKVD and one of the Czechoslovak mission in Moscow, apparently aimed not only to carry out acts of sabotage, some even failed. The government-in-exile in London learned this from the resistance groups and also sharply opposed the fact that their intelligence service structures in the Protectorate were infiltrated by another intelligence service. Promises by the Soviet Interior Minister Beria not to repeat this were not kept.

The focus of the actions aimed at Slovakia was to strengthen the partisan movement. Some operations were very successful and the resulting partisan groups then also bore the name of the operation, such as the Jánošík or Jan Žižka group . Later actions were related to the Slovak National Uprising.

Overviews

Resistance groups (selection)

Partisan groups

The most active partisan groups included the following:

statistics

Memorial for the victims of the Czech resistance 1938–1945 at the Vienna Central Cemetery

The following figures are from an official source, however they are not intended to be final; a note in the source indicates that the figures only approximate the reality and are continuously updated; obviously the fallen during the May uprisings in Prague and other cities are not fully included here.

Victims among Czechoslovak citizens
Eastern Front 5,620
Western Front and Africa 1,200
Partisans 9,000
Slow national uprising 18,000
Executed 8,500
Concentration camp, holocaust 307,000
all in all 350,000
Czechoslovak citizens active in the resistance (domestic / foreign)
Eastern Front 32,000
Western front 12,000
Middle East *) , North Africa 1000
resistance 100,000 (partisans, members of the resistance groups)
*) The terms Middle East and Middle East are interpreted differently in some languages; here is meant the eastern Mediterranean coast (also: Levant ) plus North Africa.

literature

  • Callum McDonald: The Killing of Reinhard Heydrich: The SS "Butcher of Prague". Da Capo Press, 1998, ISBN 0-306-80860-9 , Appendix 2; Czech Parachute Groups 1941/1942. P. 211.
  • František Moravec: Spy, Jemuž neveřili. (Autobiography, translation from English), Sixty-Eight Publishers, Toronto 1977, ISBN 0-88781-032-2 .
  • Ivan Kamenec : Slovenský štát v obrazoch. (= The Slovak state in pictures). Ottovo nakladatelství, Prague 2008, ISBN 978-80-7360-700-5 .
  • Martin Lacko : Slovenská republika 1939–1945. (= The Slovak Republic 1939–1945). Perfect / Ústav pamäti národa, Bratislava 2008, ISBN 978-80-8046-408-0 .
  • Martin Lacko: Slovenské národné povstanie 1944. (= The Slovak National Uprising 1944). Slovart Verlag, Bratislava 2008, ISBN 978-80-8085-575-8 .
  • Eva Leicmanova: Czech Resistance and European Concepts in World War II. In: Seminar “Resistance and European Unification in World War II”. 1999/2000, Wolfgang Schmale, Institute for History of the University of Vienna, online at: www.univie.ac.at / ...
  • Naši veteráni v 2. světové válce. A short documentation from the Ministry of Defense of the Czech Republic, online at: www.veterani.army.cz / ... , in Czech, accessed on July 27, 2013.
  • V podmínkách domácího protektorátního odboje. ed. from the Military Intelligence Service of the Czech Republic, online at: www.vzcr.cz/static / ... , Czech, can be switched to English
  • Václav Průcha, Lenka Kalinová: Koncepce budoucí hospodářské a sociální politiky v čs. odboji za druhé světové války. In: Acta Oeconomica Pragensia. 3/2005, ISSN  0572-3043 , online at: www.vse.cz/...pdf=152 , here in particular chapter 2. Domácí český odboj (p. 93ff.) And chap. 3. Domácí slovenský odboj (p. 96 ff.)
  • Jan Rychlík: The Slovak question and resistance movement during the Second World War. In: Mikuláš Teich, Dušan Kováč, Martin D. Brown (Eds.): Slovakia in History. Cambridge University Press, New York 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-80253-6 , pp. 193-205.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Alliance and friendship treaty between France and Czechoslovakia of January 25, 1924 , online at: www.herder-institut.de / ...
  2. ↑ Contract text (Czech / Russian) in Sbírka zákonů 195, series 57/1935 of October 21, 1935, No. 195, p. 615, online at: ftp.aspi.cz/ (PDF; 886 kB); German version on: www.herder-institut.de / ...
  3. ↑ a b In response to a request, the Herder Institute provides 344 titles with the term “odboj druhy protifasisticky” (second anti-fascist resistance, as of October 15, 2013). Significantly, one (Slovak) title (currently No. 9) reads "Česi v československom democickom odboji na Slovensku ..." (The Czechs in the Czechoslovak Democratic Resistance in Slovakia ...); see. www.litdok.de / ...
  4. ↑ a b Československý národní výbor a prozatímní stání zřízení ČSR v emigraci , a publication by the Czech government, online at: www.vlada.cz (PDF; 73 kB), Czech, accessed on December 2, 2010.
  5. ↑ Karel Kaplan: The fateful alliance. Infiltration, conformity and annihilation of the Czechoslovak social democracy 1944–1954 , Pol-Verlag, Wuppertal 1984, ISBN 3-9800905-0-7 (author's introduction, p. 15 ff.)
  6. ↑ F. Čapka: Dějiny zemí Koruny české v datech (tabular history), online at: www.libri.cz , Czech, accessed on December 5, 2010.
  7. ↑ No 311 (Czechoslovak) Squadron , online at: www.rafweb.org/ ( Memento of the original from March 1, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.rafweb.org
  8. ↑ Dohoda mezi vládou Československou a vládou Spojeného království o československé branné moci (Treaty between the Government of Czechoslovakia and the Government of the United Kingdom on the Czechoslovak Armed Forces) of October 25, 1940, online at: cs.wikisource.org/
  9. ↑ a b c Organizovaný odboj na Západě , ed. from the Military Intelligence Service of the Czech Republic, online at: www.vzcr.cz/static / ... ( Memento of the original dated October 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Czech, switchable to English @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.vzcr.cz
  10. ↑ Druhý odboj [The Second Resistance], a broadcast by the ČT24 TV channel on June 4, 2008 with the historians Jan Kuklík, Petr Koura and Jan Boris Uhlíř, online at: www.ceskatelevize.cz/ct24 / ...
  11. ^ A b c Leopold Gründwald: The Sudeten German Resistance Against Hitler (1938-1945). In: Leopold Grünwald (ed.), Sudetendeutsche - Opfer und Täter , Junius, Vienna 1983, ISBN 3-900370-05-2 .
  12. ↑ a b c d Komunistická strana Československa (KSČ), období 1938–1945 , encyclopedia entry, online at: www.totalita.cz / ...
  13. ^ Václav Průcha, Lenka Kalinová, Koncepce budoucí hospodářské a sociální politiky ... Chap. 3. Domácí slovenský odboj (p. 96 ff.)
  14. ↑ a b Václav Průcha, Lenka Kalinová, Koncepce budoucí hospodářské a sociální politiky ... Chapter 2. Domácí český odboj (p. 93ff.)
  15. ↑ a b c Eva Leicmanova: Czech resistance ...
  16. ↑ Květa Jechová: Emancipace shora , in: Paměť a dějiny 4/2013, ÚSTR publications , online at: ustrcr.cz / ...
  17. ↑ Petiční výbor "Věrni zůstaneme" , short entry in the online encyclopedia Cojeco. www.cojeco.cz/
  18. ↑ Klára Černá, Činnost odbojové skupiny Parsifal se zaměřením na osobu Leopolda Chmely a zejména jeho poválečný osud. Univerzita Pardubice, online at: dspace.upce.cz/ (PDF; 2.2 MB)
  19. ↑ Komunistická strana Československa (KSČ) - období 1938–1945 , treatises of the server totalita.cz, online at: www.totalita.cz/
  20. ↑ M. Klimeš et al., Cestou Května , Praha, 1965, cited above. based on: Václav Průcha, Lenka Kalinová: Koncepce budoucí hospodářské a sociální politiky ... p. 96.
  21. ^ Jan B. Uhlíř, Zapomenutý hrdina Josef Škalda. In: Noviny Prahy 2, 12/2012, p. 9, online at: www.praha2.cz/files ... ( Memento of the original from October 20, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.praha2.cz
  22. ^ Václav Průcha, Lenka Kalinová, Koncepce budoucí hospodářské a sociální politiky v čs. odboji za druhé světové války. In: Acta Oeconomica Pragensia 3/2005, ISSN  0572-3043 , online at: www.vse.cz/...pdf=152 , p. 93ff.
  23. ↑ "Národní specifika by se měla chránit a pěstovat," říká Václav Vrabec , a broadcast of the ČT24 TV channel with Václav Vrabec on January 27, 2011, online at www.ceskatelevize.cz/ct24/
  24. ^ Václav Vrabec: Odsun a domácí odboj. In: Listy 6/2003, online at: www.listy.cz/
  25. ↑ MORAVEC, František ... Short biography of the ÚSTR Institute , online at: www.ustrcr.cz / ...
  26. ↑ Alois Eliáš (September 29, 1890 - June 19, 1942) , CV of the Information Center of the Czech Government, online at: icv.vlada.cz / ...
  27. ↑ Because the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia came under the jurisdiction of the German Reich, both the court hearings and the executions could take place in the Protectorate, but also somewhere in Germany. Executions in Plötzensee 1933–1945 , information from the Plötzensee Memorial, online at: www.gedenkstaette-ploetzensee
  28. ↑ Partyzáni v českých luzích a hájích , copy of a broadcast by the ČT24 TV channel on September 3, 2010, online at: www.ceskatelevize.cz/ct24 / ...
  29. ↑ a b Jiří Frajdl: České povstání v květnu 1945 , a publication from 2005, online at: www.ceskenarodnilisty.cz/
  30. ↑ Květnové povstání českého lidu , A broadcast by the Český rozhlas radio station on May 5, 2010 and a short report, online at: www.rozhlas.cz / ...
  31. ↑ Marek Syrný, Formovanie Demokratickej strany v odboji av povstání. In: Zjednocovanie antifašistických síl na Slovensku v roku 1943, 2005, ISBN 80-88945-85-2 , cit. to and online at: www.muzeumsnp.sk ( Memento of the original dated November 22, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 93 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.muzeumsnp.sk
  32. ↑ Rychlík: The Slovak question and resistance movement , p. 200.
  33. ↑ Rychlík: The Slovak question and resistance movement , p. 202.
  34. ^ Rychlík: The Slovak question and resistance movement , p. 203.
  35. ↑ Rychlík: The Slovak question and resistance movement , p. 204.
  36. ^ Lacko: Slovenská republika , pp. 172–173.
  37. ↑ Lacko: Slovenské národné povstanie 1944 , p. 108.
  38. ^ Lacko: Slovenská republika , p. 174.
  39. ↑ Kamenec: Slovenský štát , p. 223.
  40. ↑ a b Výsadky ve WW II., Online at: forum.valka.cz/.../949
  41. ^ "Forgotten Heroes": Sudeten German resistance against the Nazi regime - a Czech research project , a report by the Ackermann community, online at: www.ackermann-gemeinde.de/
  42. ↑ a b Naši veteráni v 2. světové válce , Documentation of the Ministry of Defense of the Czech Republic, online at: www.veterani.army.cz/ ( Memento of the original from March 10, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.veterani.army.cz
  43. ↑ Paraskupina Wolfram - bojový výsadek ze Západu , online at: www.v-klub.cz/ ( Memento of the original from October 11, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.v-klub.cz
  44. ↑ Cooperation between SOE and Czechoslovak Military Intelligence Officers , online at: www.indiannet.eu/home_resistance / ...
  45. ↑ a b Jiří Šolc, Ve znamení červeného baretu. Tradice československých válečných parašutistů , in: Daga Minkewitzová et al., Výsadkáři. 60 let v čele armády , Ministry of Defense of the Czech Republic, Prague 2007, ISBN 978-80-7278-407-3 , online at: VÝSADKÁ VÝSADKÁ ÝSADKÁŘŘII 60 LET V 0 LET V ČELE ARMÁDY ( Memento from 23 August 2009 in the Internet Archive ) , Pp. 5-18.
  46. ↑ Josef Plzák, Radiové spojení zpravodajských služeb, Část 3: Agenturní spojení na území ČSR do roku 1945 , online at: www.crk.cz ... (reprint from Security Magazín)
  47. ↑ KAMMLER, keyword in the directory of all known air-to-land operations over the Protectorate and Slovakia, online at: forum.valka.cz/.../46098
  48. ↑ Compiled by the Military Historical Institute of the Ministry of Defense, quoted in according to iDNES.cz / Zprávy from May 10, 2010, online at: zpravy.idnes.cz / ...