Tsukumogami

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Sugoroku board with tsukumogami ; anonymous woodcut , around 1850

Tsukumogami ( Japanese 付 喪 神 , occasionally 九 十九 神 ; in German "artifact spirits") are beings of Japanese folk belief . They represent a special group of yōkai : They are various animated everyday objects that become yōkai and are supposed to come to life.

According to tradition, tsukumogami are “born” after 100 years if the object in question has been neglected and / or carelessly thrown away. The belief in their existence can already be demonstrated in writings from the Heian period , and these beings experienced their heyday during the late Edo period . At the beginning of the spread of the faith, which originated in Shingon-shū (the Chinese tradition of the Mizong school ) and found its way into Shintoism , tsukumogami are described as vengeful and bloodthirsty . In later writings, especially in those of the Edo period, the nature of the artifact spirits became more and more plays down until about the middle of the 20th century in countless novels , manga , movies and even Kabuki portrayed -Stücken and parodies were and become. Even today, some tsukumogami in Japan are known and loved, especially among children and young people.

Etymology of the term

The origin of the term tsukumogami and its spelling with the Kanji 付 喪 神 (literally "God inflicting sorrow") is not certain. It is generally assumed that the characters used represent a consonance with the syllable sequence tsukumogami ( つ く も が み ). On the one hand, when Chinese characters were used to represent this sequence of sounds, the characters 九 十九 髪 (literally “hair of 99 [years of age]”) were used. Written in this form, the term poetically describes the hair of a 99-year-old and symbolizes a very long life. Tsukumo, on the other hand, is an abbreviation of tsugu ("next") and momo ("100"). The 99 [years] were also chosen because the character 白 for “white” is similar to that for “hundred” 百 , which lacks the upper line, which in turn resembles that for “one” 一 .

On the other hand, this sequence of syllables is in turn closely related to a poem from the 63rd episode of Ise Monogatari , in which the relationship between a man and an old woman is described. For the woman in the poem, the term tsukumogami is used to indicate that her hair is many years old. It is Tsukumo turn an old name of Zebra ledges (Scirpus tabernaemontani) whose inflorescence is reminiscent of an old people's hair. Takako Tanaka suspects that the spelling of the name of this old woman with the Kanji 付 喪 神 originated from つ く も 髪 (Eng. "Hair of 99") in order to emphasize the menacing character of the woman who went on nightly forays into Ariwara no Narihira inflicts painful suffering. In the tsukumogami ki (see below in the text) the kanji 付 喪 神 were then used to denote the "artifact spirits".

Noriko T. Reider suspects that the use of this spelling is a deliberate allusion to a Chinese text from the 4th or early 5th century with the title sōu shén jì ( 捜 神 記 ; dt. "In search of gods"). The Japanese reading of these characters is Sōshin ki . The on-reading of the Kanji 付 喪 神 記 is Fusōshin ki , which in turn is a homonym for fu Sōshin ki (dt. "Supplement to Sōshin ki"). In terms of content, this interpretation is supported by the fact that the "artifact spirits" of the Tsukumogami ki first worship a Shinto creator god, in order then to find their salvation in Shingon Buddhism.

The second spelling of the “artefact spirits” with the Kanji 九 十九 神 (literally “deity of 99 [age]”) is derived according to Kazuhiko Komatsu from the fact that 九 十九 髪 means “longevity” and this longevity makes it special Powers were acquired. The pronunciation of the Kanji 髪 (Eng. "Hair") and 神 (Eng. "Deity") is homonymous and thus the pronunciation is tsukumogami in both cases . The spelling 九 十九 神 symbolizes spirit beings that are shaped by people or objects of very old age and that become ghosts as soon as something mysterious occurs through their actions.

definition

Tsukumogami and Yōkai , woodcut in color by Shigekiyo, 1860

The belief in tsukumogami and their work arises from a certain form of Buddhism , Shingon-shū , but is also represented in Shintōism . Both religions teach that apparently dead objects can be "animated" and transformed at any time because they too have a soul. These apparently dead objects, like people or the souls of the dead, acquire supernatural, magical abilities when they reach a very old age and, if they are appropriately honored and respected, they can change to “another world” as kami (spirit beings). The belief in “animated” natural objects was transferred to man-made objects ( artefacts ) in the course of the 14th century at the latest and spread throughout Japan. According to ancient Japanese folk belief, tsukumogami are yōkai that develop after 100 years if the object in question has not been disposed of with the respect it deserves after a long period of use and the soul inherent in the object is not venerated as a kami. Or objects in use that are at least 100 years old ("have reached their 100th birthday") and are not honored or neglected according to their old age. In this form, the tsukumogami spread fear and terror among people and play bad jokes on their former owners, but are ultimately rather harmless. But when these yōkai become shape- shifters through a special Shinto ritual and acquire magical powers comparable to the oni ( demons ), they can become bloodthirsty monsters and take cruel revenge on people for the disgrace inflicted on them.

Typical objects that can become kami or yōkai include household goods ( e.g. lanterns , tea kettles and futons ), everyday objects ( e.g. clocks and umbrellas ), items of clothing ( e.g. coats and sandals ) and musical instruments ( e.g. biwas , shamisen and gongs ). It is noticeable that even modern folklore only ever brings to life handmade artefacts that are operated or used without electricity . This is probably based on the desire to return to old traditions and values ​​that are still widespread in Japan today.

character

Usually, tsukumogami are described as harmless beings with a childlike character who simply ask for attention because of their activity. Through their behavior, which is very reminiscent of poltergeist activities of Western cultures, according to folklore , tsukumogami want to remind their former owners that they must take care of their household and all objects and artifacts in it. The real main motives are therefore boredom and grief . It is said that many tsukumogami will, at best, simply leave the house and run away if they continue to be ignored.

If, on the other hand, tsukumogami arise from careless and reckless disposal by their former owners, they can re-enact them, as they are initially driven solely by pent-up frustration. Envy should also play a role, but this is directed against newly acquired household items that should replace the old ones. For this reason, tsukumogami are said to often wreak havoc in the affected house. Most tsukumogami play silly pranks on the residents in whose households they were “born”. If, on the other hand, they have been treated badly, they are driven by anger and vindictiveness , take on violent traits and attack the residents. Many tsukumogami are said to like to gather with artifact spirits of different shapes in order to then celebrate regular parties.

history

Prehistory and literary origin

The earliest mention of animated, ghostly household items can be found in the literature of the late Heian period (794–1184) from the 12th century , for example in two stories from the Konjaku Monogatari shū ( 今昔 物語 集 , Eng. " Anthology of old stories “) Recorded around 1120. In one case, it is a copper carafe whose spirit transforms into a human being and who asks that the already buried carafe be dug up again. In the other case, a vicious Oni takes possession of a small oil pot and kills a sick girl in this form. Other stories from the same period also tell of objects that were attacked by evil spirits and in this way caused harm to people. In the early descriptions, the objects mostly do not become ghosts themselves, but are owned by strange ghosts.

The first known pictorial representation of Tsukumogami can be found in the picture scroll Tsuchigumo no Sōshi Emaki ( 土 蜘蛛 草紙 絵 巻 , German "Picture scroll from the story about the spider") from the late Kamakura period (1185-1335). In this role, Minamoto no Yorimitsu's fight against a mythical giant spider is reported. In the entrance area of ​​the house where the spider lives, various ghosts, including Tsukumogami, try to prevent Yorimitsu from proceeding further.

Kasa-obake , color woodcut by Kunisada , 1857

Tsukumogami were first described in more detail in illustrated texts from the Muromachi period (1336–1573). During this time they were also called tsukumogami and are exclusively ghosts that are inherent in the objects themselves. The idea that the tsukumogami are possessed by ghosts or oni is expressly rejected as false by the authors of the texts. The texts are part of the Otogizōshi genre (Eng. "Entertainment books") and have been handed down in several handwritten copies from the end of the 15th century . They have different titles, such as Hijō jōbutsu emaki ( 非 情 成 仏 絵 巻 , dt. "Illustrated hand rolls about the attainment of Buddhahood through unconscious living beings"), Tsukumogami ki ( 付 喪 神 記 , dt. "Record of spirits of household items"), Tsukumogami ( 付 喪 神 , dt. "Spirits of household items") and Tsukumogami emaki ( 付 喪 神 絵 巻 , dt. "Illustrated hand rolls of the ghosts of household items"), and are collectively referred to as tsukumogami ki . The texts were entertaining and, according to Noriko T. Reider, written with the intention of spreading the teachings of Shingon Buddhism. Other copies probably already existed before that were circulating in aristocratic circles.

Further representations of tsukumogami are on picture scrolls, which are generally referred to by the term Hyakki yagyō emaki ( 百 鬼 夜行 絵 巻 , German: "Illustrated hand rolls of night processions of 100 spirits"). According to Elizabeth Lillehoj, such picture scrolls would have existed as early as the 14th century and possibly earlier. The scrolls depict the parade of numerous different yōkai who move through the streets of the cities after midnight and put people in fear. The ghostly marches are already described in the Ōkagami ( 大 鏡 , German "The Great Mirror", approx. 1085–1125) and in the Konjaku monogatari shū , but without the spirits involved being described in these texts themselves. The oldest surviving picture scroll of this kind is in the Shinju-an branch temple on the grounds of Daitoku-ji in Kyoto . According to a controversial attribution, it comes from Tosa Mitsunobu (approx. 1434–1525) and is consistently dated to the first half of the 16th century . Many of the yōkai shown on this scroll are tsukumogami, such as a kasa-obake or a bake-zori .

Heyday

During the Edo period (1603–1868), the sagas and anecdotes about tsukumogami reached their peak. By the beginning of the Edo period at the latest, the belief in tsukumogami had also spread among the common people. Numerous legends that were recorded by folklorists in the 20th century and received the generic term Bakamono-dera ( 化 物 d, dt. "Spirit Temple") tell of abandoned temples or houses in which ghosts circulate at night. A priest , a passing hiker or a resident villager is forced by adverse circumstances to spend the night in the haunted temple or house and is haunted by ghosts and demons. The visitor succeeds in appeasing the ghosts (in some cases they are also killed) and thus freeing the building from its curse. In one story it is the ghosts of an old straw cloak, an old straw hat, an old bell and an old drum, in another the ghosts of a pumpkin bottle, a parasol, a lance shaft, a tray and two lumps of ash. In other versions of the Bakemono-dera collected by Yanagita Kunio , for example, the ghosts of old, wooden geta , an old mortar or an old wooden hammer appear.

Numerous works of writing have been written that are specifically dedicated to tsukumogami and also depict them, but without these being described as bloodthirstily as they were shown in the previous descriptions. The tsukumogami found literary mention, for example, in the Sorori monogatari ( 曾 呂利 物語 , German "Tales of Sorori", around 1620). It tells of a clever monk who can prophesy about tsukumogami based on their names from which object they emerged. So he calls among other things the Enyōbō, which has the shape of a pumpkin bottle . The most comprehensive, Edo-period representation and description of Yōkai in general and Tsukumogami in particular can be found in the work of Toriyama Sekiens , who published four books, each with several volumes, between 1776 and 1784. The rapid succession of publications and the numerous new editions, often with slightly different titles, prove the great popularity that the spirit world had in Japan towards the end of the 18th century . In the books Hyakki yagyō ( 百 鬼 夜行 , dt. "Nocturnal procession of 100 spirits", 1776), Zoku hyakki ( 続 百 鬼 , dt. "Continuation of the 100 spirits", 1779), Hyakki yagyō shūi ( 百 鬼 夜行拾遺 , dt. "Gleanings for the nocturnal processions of the 100 ghosts", 1781) and Hyakki tsurezure bukuro ( 百 d 徒然 袋 , dt. "Sack full of casual 100 ghosts", 1784), Sekien describes the well-known Yōkai and thus some tsukumogami of his time detailed and adds anecdotes that have been handed down in writing or orally to almost all of them . He thought up other tsukumogami himself and made them known and popular through his work. In general, a remarkable increase in legends about tsukomogami (and other yōkai ) can be observed during the Edo period .

Chōchin Oiwa , color woodcut by Hokusai , around 1830

Towards the end of the Edo period, tsukumogami also found their way into the Kabuki theaters of Edo and Ōsaka , as shown by depictions of corresponding scenes on contemporary woodblock prints by Utagawa Kunisada and Konishi Hirosada . A tsukumogami that is known and represented to this day comes from the kabuki piece Tōkaidō Yotsuya Kaidan ( 東海 道 四 谷 怪 d, German "Ghost stories in Yotsuya on Tōkai Street"), which was premiered in 1825 . The play is about a woman named Oiwa nyōbō Iemon, who is driven to death by her husband, his family and her rival. In the final scene of the play, her ghost first appears as a paper lantern, emerges from it and takes revenge on her mother-in-law and her husband, Tamiya Iemon. This spirit is recorded as Chōchin Oiwa, a special form of Chōchin-obake , on numerous color woodcuts by Katsushika Hokusai , Utagawa Kunisada and Utagawa Kuniyoshi , the leading color woodcut artists of their time, and is known in Japan to this day.

Tsukumogami can also be found on other woodblock prints from the end of the Edo period. At least two Sugoroku game boards, one by an unknown artist and one by Utagawa Yoshikazu , have been preserved. In the collection of the MFA Boston there is a print by Hiroshige student Kiyoshige, entitled Shinpan bakemono zukushi ( 新 板 化 物 づ づ く , Eng . "A new collection of ghosts"), on which 60 different ghosts, including numerous, in a child-friendly manner Tsukumogami, are pictured.

present

As Komatsu reports, it has long been the custom in Japan to celebrate a special New Year for household items on the 14th or 15th day of the first month, and to honor them with offerings. This custom has now been forgotten, but to this day a kind of festival called Susuharai ( 煤 払 払 ; to "drive dust") is held in Japan in the last week of December , the origins of which can be traced back to the early 13th century . In the course of the festival, houses and households are thoroughly cleaned both technically and ritually. Older Japanese people in particular take old or broken things (e.g. furniture, cloakrooms, dolls and musical instruments) to be replaced with new ones to a nearby shrine to be blessed there. The items undergo a formal ceremony ( 供養 , kuyo ) before they are given away or disposed of in the bulky waste. In this way one should be able to prevent tsukumogami from being “born” in one's own four walls. Another tradition that may be linked to the fear of tsukumogami is that of placing broken or worn knitting needles in cubes of tofu and saying goodbye with dignity.

Legends and Folklore

In the tsukumogami ki ( 付 喪 神 記 , dt. "Record of ghosts of household objects ") from the Muromachi period , it is described how objects carelessly removed from the household gather together and discuss their fate. The objects decide to take revenge on people for the shame inflicted on them and to allow themselves to be transformed into animated beings through the power of a Shinto creator god. The only dissenting vote on the part of a discarded Buddhist rosary , but better to answer hostility with kindness , they blow to the wind. The objects undergo the Shinto ritual and become animated, vengeful tsukumogami. They take different forms: they become young or old men or women, animals (such as foxes or wolves ), demons or goblins . What all figures have in common is that they are terrifying beyond description. The spirits settle behind the mountain Funaoka and from there invade the capital and its surroundings again and again, where they kill people and their pets and take their victims with them as food. They build a castle of flesh and build a fountain from which blood flows. They commit diabolical acts and are aggressive towards everything human. To put a stop to their horror, a Buddhist ritual finally takes place at the imperial court, as a result of which “Divine Boys”, the companions of the “Protectors of Teaching”, appear and take up the fight against the spirits. The “Divine Boys” do not destroy the spirits, however, but take the oath from them to forsake their vengeance on people and to set out on the path of the Buddha. The spirits keep their oath, withdraw to remote mountain valleys and finally, after extensive studies, attain all Buddhahood.

Modern anecdotes about tsukumogami are common in Japan today. Then go into the Ehime Prefecture , the forecast for that verhexter umbrella in the district Higashimurayama unsuspecting walkers who of rain were surprised to verleite open up the screen to protect supposedly from the rain. Instead, the Kasa-obake grabs his victims by the wrist and carries them away for miles.

In Japan, many parents still tell their children today that a chochin-obake would lure them out of their beds and kidnap them at night. Presumably, the children with such horror stories should be weaned off the nocturnal roaming around and not wanting to sleep.

Tsukumogami in modern subculture

A toy figure in the shape of the Kasa-obake .

Tsukumogami today

Ideas and images of tsukumogami are popular in modern Japan even beyond traditional beliefs, they are popular as fictional characters. Various artifact ghosts are very well known and experience a corresponding recognition value, especially among children and young people. This is partly due to the fact that tsukumogami such as Bake-zōri, Kasa-obake and Chōchin-obake embody those household and everyday objects that are still in daily use today, so that their shape is easier to remember.

Modern media

The sustained popularity of tsukumogami can mainly be explained by the fact that tsukumogami and other yōkai are not only discussed again and again in illustrated fiction , but now also in modern media such as anime series, mangas , kabuki theaters, horror films , computer games and even as Toys make their appearance.

Many tsukumogami figures are common in Japan as toys and as motifs on trading cards. For example, jumping jacks are sold in the shape of the Kasa-obake. Its regular appearance in modern media is an effective way of maintaining and promoting the awareness and popularity of tsukumogami among young people. In the case of certain artifact spirits, such as the Kasa-obake, their fame is explained by the fact that their appearance is easy to describe and trace, which is why these beings are popular with children and young people as painting and sketch motifs .

In the early 1970s, tsukumogami like the kasa-obake experienced a sort of modern comeback in the modern film industry. In various Yōkai films, such as Yōkai Hyaku Monogatari by Yasuda Kimiyoshi from 1968, Kasa-obake appear, who play prominent roles in the film. In the 1966 fantasy horror film Yōkai Daisensō (Great Yōkai War) by Yoshiyuko Kuroda, the yōkai boy GeGeGe no Kitarō travels into the human world to find a hero who will save the monster world from evil tsukumogami and treacherous yōkai. In the remake by Miike Takashi from 2006, however, a young boy from Tokyo is drawn into a war between good-natured yōkai and vicious tsukumogami. Animated household and everyday objects are recurring themes in countless anime series and films, for example in Spirited Away, where a Chōchin-obake in the form of a one-legged courtyard lantern jumps towards Chihiro when she visits the witch Zeniba, to light her way to the witch house. In the manga Tsugumomo , people fight together with tsukumogami against ghosts that take possession of people.

A well-known presentation of various tsukumogami in computer games can be found in the Game Boy game Super Mario Land 2 . There whole levels (for example the Pumpkin Zone ) are dedicated to different yōkai and tsukumogami. Tsukumogami who ambush the protagonist Mario there are the Chōchin-obake and the Kasa-obake. While the Chōchin-obake hovers motionless in the air and only tries to hit Mario with his long tongue, the Kasa-obake jumps high into the air, opens his umbrella and flies nimbly after the hero. Another example is the video game Tsukumogami (English title version: 99 Spirits ), which is set in the feudal Middle Ages of Japan and is about youthful demon hunters.

Parallels in Western film and entertainment media

The idea of ​​animated and inspired objects can also be found in western culture. In particular, cartoons and fantasy films designed and released by Walt Disney Studios show clear parallels to tsukumogami appearances in certain individual scenes , according to authors such as Patrick Drazen . A prime example is Disney's Beauty and the Beast : In the Beast's Castle, animated household objects and dishes are at work. However, it is unclear whether and to what extent Japanese culture influenced these Western ideas.

Well-known tsukumogami

The most famous and popular tsukumogami include:

  • Bake-zōri : Walking rice straw - sandals with two arms, two legs and one eye. They are supposed to run through the house at night and sing out loud.
  • Biwa-bokuboku : An animated Biwa who is supposed to wake up at night and play and sing loudly, lamenting. She laments her neglect.
  • Boroboroton : a dingy futon that comes to life and embraces the sleeper to strangle him.
  • Chochin-obake : An animated Chochin - lantern , the unsuspecting hikers and residents frightened.
  • Kameosa : A soulful sake jar that never runs out if treated well.
  • Kasa-obake : an obsessed paper umbrella with one leg, two arms, one eye, and a long tongue.
  • Koto-furunushi : An animated koto that is supposed to play by itself when nobody is looking.
  • Zorigami : Obsessive clocks that trick their owners into deliberately telling them the wrong time all the time.

literature

  • Reiko Mochinaga Brandon, Barbara B. Stephan: Spirit and symbol: the Japanese New Year . University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1994, ISBN 0-937426-25-3 .
  • Noriko Reider: Animating objects: Tsukumogami-ki and the medieval illustration of Shingon truth. In: Japanese Journal of Religious Studies , 36th Edition, 2nd semester. Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture, Tokyo 2009, pp. 231-257.
  • Michael Dylan Foster: Pandemonium and Parade: Japanese Monsters and the Culture of Yokai . California Press, Michigan 2008, ISBN 0-520-94267-1 .
  • Michaela Haustein: Mythologies of the World: Japan, Ainu, Korea . ePubli, Berlin 2011, ISBN 3-8442-1407-0 .
  • Adam Kabat: も も ん が あ 対 見 越 入道: 江 戶 の 化 物 た ち . Kodansha, Tokyo 2006, ISBN 978-4-06-212873-5 .
  • Shigeru Mizuki: 妖 鬼 化. 5 東北 ・ 九州 編 . Softgarage, Tokyo 2004, ISBN 978-4-86133-027-8 .
  • Masaharu Takemura: ろ く ろ 首 考: 妖怪 の 生物学 . Bungei-sha, Tokyo 2002, ISBN 4-8355-4635-0 .

Web links

Commons : Tsukumogami  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f Noriko Reider: Animating objects . Pp. 231-257.
  2. ↑ a b c Adam Kabat: も も ん が あ 対 見 越 入道: 江 戶 の 化 物 た ち . P. 236.
  3. ↑ Noriko Reider: Animating objects. P. 247.
  4. ^ A b c Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 248.
  5. ↑ 九 十九 里 浜 （く じ ゅ う く り は ま） あ れ こ れ . Sammu City, accessed April 13, 2014 (Japanese).
  6. ↑ 九 十九 髪 . デ ジ タ ル 大 辞 泉 at kotobank.jp, accessed April 13, 2014 (Japanese).
  7. ↑ Tanaka Takako: Hyakki yagyō no mieru toshi ( 百 鬼 夜行 の 見 え る 都市 ) . Shin'yōsha, Tokyo 1994, p. 175. Quoted from Noriko Reider: Animating objects . Note 22, p. 245.
  8. ↑ Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 244 f.
  9. ↑ a b Kazuhiko Komatsu: Hyōrei shinkō ron ( 憑 霊 信仰 論 ) . Kōdansha, Tokio 1994, p. 330. Quoted from Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 248.
  10. ↑ a b Kazuhiko Komatsu: Supernatural Apparitions and Domestic Life in Japan. In: The Japan Foundation Newsletter. ( Memento from January 25, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Volume XXVII / NO. 1, June 1999, pp. 1–5 and p. 20, here p. 4, accessed on June 3, 2014. (English)
  11. ↑ a b Kazuhiko Komatsu: Supernatural Apparitions and Domestic Life in Japan. In: The Japan Foundation Newsletter. Volume XXVII / NO. 1, June 1999, pp. 1–5 and p. 20, here p. 2, accessed on June 3, 2014. (English)
  12. ↑ Shigeru Mizuki: 妖 鬼 化. 5 東北 ・ 九州 編 . Pp. 51-52.
  13. ↑ a b Masaharu Takemura: ろ く ろ 首 考: 妖怪 の 生物学 . Pp. 89-91.
  14. ↑ Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 241.
  15. ↑ Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 251 f.
  16. ^ A b c Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 252.
  17. ↑ Kazuhiko Komatsu: Supernatural Apparitions and Domestic Life in Japan. In: The Japan Foundation Newsletter. Volume XXVII / NO. 1, June 1999, pp. 1–5 and p. 20, here p. 3, accessed on June 3, 2014. (English)
  18. ↑ Illustration of the role on: e-Museum, National Treasures & Important Cultural Properties of National Museums, Japan , accessed on June 4, 2014. (English)
  19. ↑ Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 232.
  20. ↑ Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 233.
  21. ↑ Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 231.
  22. ↑ Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 236.
  23. ↑ Elizabeth Lillehoj: Transfiguration: Man-made Objects as Demons. In: Japanese Scrolls Asian Folklore Studies. Volume 54, 1995, p. 8, accessed June 4, 2014, (English).
  24. ↑ Elisabeth Scherer (Ed.): Unheimlich prominent. Yōkai and Yūrei in Japanese cultural history. Düsseldorfer Japanstudien (DJAS), Volume 4, ISSN  2194-8267 , online , accessed June 4, 2014.
  25. ↑ Elizabeth Lillehoj: Transfiguration: Man-made Objects as Demons. In: Japanese Scrolls Asian Folklore Studies. Volume 54, 1995, p. 25, accessed June 5, 2014, (English).
  26. ↑ Kazuhiko Komatsu: Supernatural Apparitions and Domestic Life in Japan. In: The Japan Foundation Newsletter. Volume XXVII / NO. 1, June 1999, pp. 1–5 and p. 20, here p. 5, accessed on June 5, 2014, (English).
  27. ↑ Fanny Hagin Mayer (Ed.): The Yanagita Kunio Guide to the Japanese Folk Tales. Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1986, pp. 122 f.
  28. ^ Elisabeth Scherer: Spuk der Frauenseele: female spirits in Japanese films and their cultural-historical origins . Transcript Verlag, 2011, ISBN 3-8376-1525-1 , p. 48.
  29. ↑ Michael Dylan Foster: Pandemonium and Parade. Pp. 7-9.
  30. ^ Samuel L. Leader: New Kabuki Encyclopedia . P. 651 ff.
  31. ^ Museum of Fine Arts Boston , accessed June 5, 2014, (English).
  32. ↑ Noriko Reider: Animating objects . P. 234, note 5.
  33. ^ A b William R. LaFleur: Liquid Life: Abortion and Buddhism in Japan. Princeton University Press, New Jersey 1994 (new edition), ISBN 0-691-02965-2 , pp. 143-145.
  34. ↑ Michaela Haustein: Mythologies of the world . P. 53.
  35. ↑ Reiko Mochinaga Brandon, Barbara B. Stephan: Spirit and symbol . Pp. 17-19.
  36. ↑ Summary of the English translation by Noriko T. Reider from the Japanese. In: Japanese Journal of Religious Studies , accessed May 16, 2014. (English)
  37. ↑ Kenji Murakami: 妖怪 事 典. Mainichi Shinbunsha, Tokyo 2000, ISBN 978-4-620-31428-0 , p. 119.
  38. ↑ Tagami Kenichi, Nakamura Okutsu, Keisuke Tsusuna: ア ニ メ 版 ゲ ゲ ゲ の 鬼 太郎 完全 読 本, Kodansha, Tokyo 2006, ISBN 4-06-213742-9 , p. 118.
  39. ↑ a b c Katsumi Tada, Zō Jimusho: 日本 と 世界 の 「幽 霊 ・ 妖怪」 が よ く わ か る 本. Pp. 54-57.
  40. ↑ Lea Baten: Playthings and pastimes in Japanese prints . P. 59.
  41. ↑ Zilia Papp: Investigating the Influence of Edo- and Meiji Period Monster Art on Contemporary Japanese Visual Media . University Press, Saitama 2008, pp. 200–202 ( PDF download ( Memento from February 5, 2017 in the Internet Archive )).
  42. ^ Scott A. Lukas, John Marmysz: Fear, Cultural Anxiety, and Transformation: Horror, Science Fiction, and Fantasy Films Remade . Lexington Books, 2010, ISBN 0-7391-2489-7 , p. 134.
  43. ↑ Michael Dylan Foster: Pandemonium and Parade. P. 212.
  44. ↑ Presentation of various tsukumogami in Super Mario Land 2 on Aardwolfpack.tumblr.com . (English)
  45. ↑ Tsukumogami (99 Spirits) on steampowered.com . English; last accessed on November 4, 2014
  46. ↑ Patrick Drazen: Anime Explosion !: The What? Why? and wow! of Japanese Animation, Revised and Updated Edition. Stone Bridge Press, 2014, ISBN 1-61172-013-3 , pp. 189-191.
This version was added to the list of articles worth reading on November 8, 2014 .