Valere Novarina

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Valère Novarina (born May 4, 1942 in Chêne-Bougeries ) is a French- Swiss writer , essayist , theater director and painter .

Life

Valère Novarina was born in 1942 as the son of the French architect Maurice Novarina (1907–2002) and the Swiss actress Manon Trolliet in Chêne-Bougeries near Geneva . He spent his childhood and youth in Thonon-les-Bains on Lake Geneva in the French department of Haute-Savoie . In Paris he studied philosophy and philology at the Sorbonne and wrote a thesis on Antonin Artaud .

In 1974 his first play L'Atelier volant ( German  Die flying workshop ) premiered in a production by Jean-Pierre Sarrazac .

Initially rejected by several major publishers, Le Babil des classes dangereuses (roman théâtral) was published in 1978 by Christian Bourgois in the TXT Collection, the publisher was the poet Christian Prigent .

In 1980 Novarina began to draw publicly as a gestural continuation of writing and then to exhibit.

Two events marked the actual beginning of his ascent in the theater: In 1986 the monologue Le Discours aux animaux (German: The speech to the animals) was premiered in Paris at the Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord as part of the Festival d'Automne by the actor André Marcon , broadcast on France Culture and invited to the Avignon Festival in 1987 . In 1986 Valère Novarina staged the world premiere of his play Le Drame de la vie himself for the first time at the Avignon Festival in a decoration he painted. Others followed: Vous qui habitez le temps (1989), Je suis (1991), La Chair de l'homme (1995), Le Jardin de reconnaissance (1997), L'Origine rouge (2000), La Scène (2003), L'Acte inconnu (2007), Le Vrai sang (2011) and Le Vivier des noms (2015).

Since the mid-1990s, its performances have been running en suite in major Parisian theaters for up to six weeks ( Théâtre national de la Colline , Odéon - Théâtre de l'Europe , Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord , Théâtre du Rond-Point , Théâtre de l'Athénée ), as well as on tours throughout France and Switzerland ( Théâtre national de Strasbourg , Théâtre National Populaire (TNP) in Villeurbanne , Théâtre national de Marseille la Criée , Théâtre Vidy-Lausanne , Comédie de Genève ) and achieve up to one hundred performances . In 2006 he was included in the official repertoire of the Paris Comédie-Française while he was still alive , where he staged L'Espace furieux (an adaptation of Je suis ). In 2007 he opened the Avignon Festival with L'Acte inconnu on the forty-meter-wide stage of the Court of Honor in the Papal Palace . In 2010/11 he was a resident author at the Odéon - Théâtre de l'Europe in Paris.

In the cinema, texts by him have been used in three films: Zanzibar by Christine Pascal (1989), Soigne ta droite (1987) and Nouvelle vague (1990) by Jean-Luc Godard .

For France Culture's Atelier de Création Radiophonique , he realized Le Théâtre des oreilles (1980) and Les Cymbales de l'homme en bois du limonaire retentissent (1994).

His work has been published by the Paris publishing house POL since 1984 , alternating between dramatic and essayistic texts. Novarina's texts have been published in 19 languages, including French , English , Italian , Catalan , Spanish , Portuguese , German , Russian , Slovak , Bulgarian , Greek , Hebrew , Hungarian , Romanian , Czech , Turkish , Arabic , Japanese and Chinese .

Since 1998, German translations have been published first by Alexander Verlag Berlin , then by Matthes & Seitz Berlin , as well as in anthologies by Verlag der Autor und Theater der Zeit .

Two extensive German-language studies were devoted to the author's work from a scientific point of view.

Valère Novarina lives and works in the 16th arrondissement in Paris and in a hut in the mountains of Haute-Savoie. He is married to the actress Roséliane Goldstein . The couple has two sons: Virgile (* 1976) and David (* 1978).

plant

Valère Novarina developed his in the context of the Tel Quel magazine published by Philippe Sollers from 1960 to 1982 , which was regarded as the central platform of post-structuralist thought, and the TXT magazine published by Christian Prigent since 1968 , in which his first texts found a public from 1975 onwards multifaceted way of working, in which, in accordance with the paradigm shift that has taken place in modern linguistics , he no longer treats language merely as a mere communication tool, but as an independent entity. If for Novarina the language is our actual “soil”, he sees linguistics as the geology of language. Similar to what Roland Barthes called for in Leçon in 1977 , Novarina began to fight language as a context of meaning with its own means. As a result, he was swimming against the tide as an author in the theater business, where increasing realism had been in demand since May 1968 . As a "technique du corps" (body technique against language) he no longer operated his writing as a result-oriented text production, but as a laboratory experiment with an open outcome. Accordingly, the theater scholar Hans-Thies Lehmann named it as an example of the rejection of performing representation in post-dramatic theater . The fact that with Novarina the writing process as such already assumes the intensity of a performative act allows it to be related to the discourse of performativity in theater studies , as it was formulated by Erika Fischer-Lichte around 2000 . Going beyond the literary text, Novarina Theater can only be experienced through the interplay of the actors' physicality with the gaze of the audience. The corporeality of speaking in space is also the focus of his essayistic reflections, which appear in constant change with the actual theatrical works of art.

Novarina first became known in the German-speaking world through reporting by the SZ theater critic Curt Bernd Sucher , who described him as a “drive poet”. As an author he could be discovered from 1998 through the translation of his manifestos Letter to the Actors and For Louis de Funès by Leopold von Verschuer , for whose first edition Sucher wrote the epilogue.

style

The anarchic soil of language is the subject of Valère Novarina's writing. In polyphonic , labyrinthine dialogues and monologues, he mobilizes the vitality of language beyond the mere production of meaning and encourages physical hearing in other depths of linguistic perception . For Novarina, speaking is just as much an embodiment as it is a transcendence of reality: an ontological , cosmopolitan theater of words with up to three thousand characters and pages long lists. The difficulties of translating this author lie in his excessive linguistic quality; his texts are peppered with word inventions ( neologisms ), modified grammar , a constant change in language levels , colloquial or profession-specific expressions, dialectal forms, lists of proper names , interactions between word sound and semantics , modified quotes across Western and Eastern thought. It is his way of working compared (with the method of the "stream of consciousness" German  stream of consciousness ) at James Joyce , but also inspired by the writing attempts by authors of brut nature as Adolf Wölfli . In addition to the Renaissance poet François Rabelais , to whom he dedicated readings and reflections, Alfred Jarry and Antonin Artaud are also seen as his forerunners.

Publications

In the publishing house POL

  • Le drame de la vie . 1984.
  • Le Discours aux animaux 1987 (paperback 2016).
  • Théâtre (L'Atelier volant, Le Babil des classes dangereuses, Le Monologue d'Adramélech, La Lutte des morts, Falstafe) . 1989 ( Falstafe , paperback edition 2008. Le Monologue d'Adramélech , new edition 2009. L'Atelier volant , new edition 2010. Le Babil des classes dangereuses , new edition 2011).
  • Le Théâtre des paroles (Lettre aux acteurs, Le Drame dans la langue française, Le Théâtre des oreilles, Carnets, Impératifs, Pour Louis de Funès, Chaos, Notre parole, Ce dont on ne peut parler, c'est cela qu'il faut dire) . 1989 (paperback 2007).
  • Vous qui habitez le temps . 1989.
  • Pendant la matière . 1991.
  • Je suis . 1991.
  • L'Animal du temps (stage version of Le Discours aux animaux ). 1993.
  • L'Inquiétude (stage version of Le Discours aux animaux ). 1993.
  • La Chair de l'homme . 1995.
  • Le Repas (stage version of the first pages of La Chair de l'homme )., 1996.
  • L'Espace furieux (stage version by Je suis ). 1997 (new edition 2006).
  • L'Avant dernier des hommes (stage version of Chapter XVII of La Chair de l'homme ). 1997.
  • Le Jardin de reconnaissance . 1997.
  • L'Opérette imaginaire . 1998.
  • Devant la parole . 1999 (paperback 2010).
  • L'Origine rouge . 2000.
  • L'Équilibre de la croix (stage version by La Chair de l'homme ). 2003.
  • La Scène . 2003.
  • Lumières du corps . 2006.
  • L'Acte inconnu . 2007.
  • L'Envers de l'esprit . 2009.
  • Le Vrai sang . 2011.
  • La Quatrième Personne du singulier . 2012.
  • Observez les logaèdres! 2014.
  • Le Vivier des noms . 2015.
  • Voie negative . 2017.
  • L'Homme hors de lui , 2018.
  • L'Animal imaginaire , 2019.

In other publishers (selection)

  • Lettre aux acteurs . L'Énergumène (L'Autre Bibliothèque), Paris 1979.
  • 100/2587 , one hundred of the 2587 characters drawn in La Rochelle in July 1983 from Le Drame de la vie . Beba, Paris / Dijon 1986.
  • Pour Louis de Funès , as a prelude to Lettre aux acteurs . Actes Sud, Arles 1986.
  • La Loterie Pierrot , extended scene XII from La Chair de l'homme . Héros Limite, Geneva 1995 (new edition added in 2009).
  • Le Drame de la vie (1984), foreword by Philippe Sollers. Gallimard (Poésie), Paris 2003.
  • L'Acte inconnu (2007), commentary by Michel Corvin. Gallimard (Folio Théâtre), Paris 2009.
  • L'Opérette imaginaire (1998), commentary by Michel Corvin. Gallimard (Folio Théâtre), Paris 2012.
  • Personne n'est à l'intérieur de rien , correspondence Jean Dubuffet u. Valère Novarina, foreword by Pierre Vilar. L'Atelier contemporain, Paris 2014.

In German translation

  • Letter to the actors. Translated by Alain Jadot. Hunzinger Bühnenverlag, Bad Homburg 1990 (sample not for sale).
  • The speech to the animals (excerpt). Translated by Brigitta Restorff. In: C. Baumann, G. Lerch (Ed.): Extreme Presence: French Literature of the 80s . Manholt Verlag, Bremen 1989, ISBN 978-3-924903-70-1 .
  • Birds . Translated by Alain Jadot. In: Copybook No. 36. Rigodon Verlag, Essen 1990, ISSN 0174-2132.
  • Letter to the actors and For Louis de Funès . Translated by Leopold von Verschuer, afterword by C. Bernd Sucher. Alexander Verlag, Berlin 1998 (2nd expanded edition 2007), ISBN 978-3-89581-031-2 .
  • The flesh of man (scene XII from La Chair de l'homme). Translated by Leopold von Verschuer. In: Theater of Time (Issue 5). Berlin 1998, ISSN | 0040-5418.
  • Sequence. Translated by Leopold von Verschuer. In: The robbers of the beach property . Single Verlag, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-932358-03-1 .
  • The imaginary operetta. Translated by Leopold von Verschuer. Alexander Verlag, Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-932358-03-1 .
  • The red origin. Translated by Leopold von Verschuer. In: Barbara Engelhardt (Ed.): Scène 6, New French theater pieces . Publishing house of the authors, Frankfurt am Main 2003, ISBN 3-88661-258-9 .
  • The unknown act. Translated by Leopold von Verschuer. In: Barbara Engelhardt (Ed.): Scène 12, New French theater pieces . Verlag Theater der Zeit, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-940737-54-0 .
  • The scene. Translated by Leopold von Verschuer. In: Theater der Zeit (May issue), Berlin 2011, ISSN 0040-5418.
  • Lights of the body. Translated by Leopold von Verschuer. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-88221-625-7 .
  • 311 Definitions of God (Chapter XXV from La Chair de l'homme ). Translated by Leopold von Verschuer. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-88221-290-7 (as a radio play: The Unknown God . Bayerischer Rundfunk, Munich 2011).
  • Adramelech's monologue. Translated by Leopold von Verschuer, afterword by Frank M. Raddatz . Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-88221-400-0 .
  • The speech to the animals. Translated by Leopold von Verschuer. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-95757-456-5 . (as a radio play: Part 1 The Animal of Time . Deutschlandradio, Berlin 2016. - Part 2 The Unrest . Deutschlandradio 2017. - Part 3 1111 birds . Deutschlandfunk Kultur 2018.)

Productions by the author

  • Le drame de la vie. Avignon Festival, Festival d'Automne, Paris, 1986.
  • Vous qui habitez le temps. Avignon Festival, Festival d'Automne, Paris, 1989.
  • JE suis. Festival d'Automne, Théâtre de la Bastille, Paris 1991.
  • La Chair de l'homme. Avignon Festival, Théâtre du Rond-Point, Paris, 1995.
  • Le Jardin de reconnaissance. Théâtre de l'Athénée, Paris, 1997.
  • L'Origine rouge. Avignon Festival, Théâtre National de la Colline, Paris, 2000.
  • La Scène. Théâtre de Vidy-Lausanne, Théâtre National de La Colline, Paris, 2003.
  • L'Espace furieux. Comédie-Française, Paris, 2006.
  • L'Acte inconnu. Festival of Avignon (opening in the main courtyard of the Palais des Papes, live television broadcast on ARTE), Théâtre National de la Colline, 2007.
  • Le Monologue d'Adramélech. Théâtre Vidy-Lausanne, Théâtre de la Bastille, Paris, 2009.
  • Képzeletbeli operetta (L'Opérette imaginaire). Translated into Hungarian by Zsofia Rideg. Théâtre Csokonai, Debrecen (Hungary), Odéon - Théâtre de L'Europe, Paris, 2010.
  • Le Vrai sang. Odéon - Théâtre de l'Europe, Paris, 2011.
  • L'Atelier valance. Théâtre du Rond-Point, Paris, 2012.
  • Le Vivier des noms. Avignon Festival, 2015.
  • L'Acte inconnu (Haitian version). Festival des francophonies, Limoges 2015, Maison des Métallos, Paris, 2016.
  • L'Homme hors de lui. La Colline théâtre national, Paris, 2017.
  • L'Animal imaginaire. La Colline théâtre national, Paris 2019.

Productions in German (theater and radio)

  • The Falbala Researcher - Trialog. Director: Leopold von Verschuer. Studiobühne Cologne, 1995.
  • The 66th hole. (For Louis de Funès) Director: Leopold von Verschuer. Studiobühne Cologne, 1998.
  • The theater of the ears. Radio play adaptation of the American production Theater of eras by Zaven Paré u. Allan Weiss (California Institute of Arts, Los Angeles, 2001). Director: Hein Brühl. WDR, Studio Akustische Kunst, Cologne, 2001.
  • The imaginary operetta. Direction: Leopold von Verschuer, music: Willi Kellers. Theater Rampe, Stuttgart 2001.
  • Letter to the actors. Director: Philip Tiedemann. Düsseldorfer Schauspielhaus, 2005.
  • The red origin. Director: Leopold von Verschuer. Theater am Neumarkt, Zurich, 2007.
  • To the unknown god. (311 Definitions of God) radio play. Director: Leopold von Verschuer. Bayerischer Rundfunk, 2011 (as a live radio play: Münchner Kammerspiele, 2013).
  • Homo Automaticus “The Monologue of Adramelech”. Director: Leopold von Verschuer. Theater discounter Berlin u. Fundamental Monodrama Festival Luxembourg 2014.
  • The speech to the animals. Radio play, part 1: The animal of time. Part 2: The unrest. Part 3: 1111 birds. Director: Leopold von Verschuer. Deutschlandradio / Deutschlandfunk Kultur, 2016/2017/2018.
  • Insects and unicorns - the exchange of letters between Jean Dubuffet and Valère Novarina. Director: Leopold von Verschuer. Deutschlandfunk Kultur, 2018.

Exhibitions (selection)

  • Une Journée de dessin (455 drawings from sunrise to sunset). Medamothi Gallery, Montpellier, 1980.
  • Le Theater est vide. Entre Adam… (for violin, actress and draftsman: 1008 drawings from noon to dawn). Jacques Donguy Gallery, Bordeaux, 1980
  • Le Théâtre séparé (performance and exhibition). Galerie Arte incontri, Milan, 1980.
  • Deux jours de dessins (performance and exhibition). Gallery L'Ollave, Lyon, 1981.
  • La Chambre noire (2 days of painting). Galerie A la limite, Dijon, 1982.
  • Générique (performance and exhibition): V. Novarina draws the 2587 characters from Le Drame de la vie in the St. Nicolas tower in La Rochelle . La Rochelle, 1983.
  • 2587 designs. Galerie de France, Paris, 1987.
  • La Lumière nuit (paintings, drawings, installations on graphic palette). Galerie de France, Paris, 1990.
  • 78 figures pauvres. Galerie de France, Paris, 1994.
  • L'Inquiétude rythmique (retrospective). Musée Sainte-Croix, Poitiers, 1996.
  • Painting u. Drawings. Carré Saint Vincent, Orléans, 1998.
  • The 2587 drawn characters from Le Drame de la vie , photographs of the work as a director and sculptor. Musée des Beaux-Arts et d'Archéologie, Besançon, 2004.
  • La Lumière nuit (installation and painting). As part of the exhibition La beauté. Chapelle du Miracle, Papal Palace, Avignon, 2007.
  • 4 peintures, 111 designs, 1 pierre. Galerie de la Maison de la poésie, Paris, 2008.
  • Théâtre de dessins: 2587 personnages, 311 définitions de Dieu (retrospective). Arts Santa Monica, Barcelona, ​​2010.
  • Un temps, deux temps et la moitié d'un temps. Galerie de la Maison de la poésie, Paris, 2011.
  • Les figures pauvres (33 drawings). Galerie Cortex Athletico, Bordeaux, 2011.
  • Anthropoglyphes (pictures and drawings). Gallery Chantal Bamberger, Strasburg, 2012.
  • 13 peintures. Le Consortium Gallery, Dijon, 2013.
  • Drawings. BU Saulcy, JECP (European Days of Jewish Culture), Metz, 2016.
  • Valere Novarina. Disparaître sous toutes les formes . Retrospective. Musée de l'Abbaye Sainte-Croix, Sables d'olonne, 2017.

literature

In German language

Monographs

  • Constanze Fröhlich: Poetics of Abundance. Speaking and remembering at Valère Novarina's work. Winter, Heidelberg 2014.
  • Kerstin Beyerlein: "Theatrogenic text zones" or "a theater of the ears"? The post-dramatic literary theater by Valère Novarina. Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2015.

Contributions

  • Leopold von Verschuer: Free Fall and Dance in Language. About the author, director and painter Valère Novarina. In: Theater der Zeit (September / October issue), Berlin 1998.
  • Leopold von Verschuer: Free Fall and Dance in Language. Translate Valère Novarina. In: dramaheft [di: rampe] No. 8. Theater Rampe, Stuttgart 2002.
  • Leopold von Verschuer: I write through my ears. About the Valère Novarina Theater. In: Doris Kolesch, Jenny Schödl (Ed.): Art Voices . Theater der Zeit, Berlin 2004.
  • Anne Fournier: The text has not been translated. No. He died and rose again. Valère Novarina in conversation with Leopold von Verschuer. In: Viceversa 2 (Yearbook of Swiss Literatures). Limmatverlag, Zurich 2008.
  • Christine Mundt-Espin: Valère Novarina: Pour Louis de Funès (1985): L'Acteur nul et parfait. In: Frank Göbler (Ed.): The artist drama as a mirror of aesthetic and social tendencies. Francke, Tübingen 2009.
  • Kerstin Beyerlein: 'Un drame dans la langue francaise.' Expenditure processes in Valère Novarina's literary theater. In: Christine Bähr et al. (Ed.): Abundance and transgression: the cultural practice of spending. Transcript, Bielefeld 2009.
  • Marco Baschera, Pietro De Marchi, Sandro Zanetti (eds.): Between languages. Entre les langues, multilingualism, translation, opening up languages. Plurilinguisme, traduction, overture des langues. Aisthesis Verlag, Bielefeld 2019.
  • Francis Cohen: Novarin Theater. On the actor's ethnography and anthropopodulology. (From the French v. L. v. Verschuer) In: Lettre International 126, Berlin 2019.

In French

The numerous publications are listed on the author's website: Ouvrages critiques .

Awards

  • 2003: Prix Marguerite-Duras for L'Origine rouge .
  • 2007: Grand Prix du Théâtre de l'Académie Française.
  • 2011: Nomination for the Molière de l'auteur francophone vivant for Le Vrai Sang.
  • 2011: Prix de la meilleure création d'une pièce en langue française du Syndicat de la critique for Le Vrai Sang.
  • 2011: Prix de Littérature Francophone Jean Arp for the complete works.
  • 2014: Audience Award of the Festival Primeur for new French drama, Saarbrücken, for Homo Automaticus - The Monologue of Adramelech.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. Valère Novarina, Alain Virmaux: Antonin Artaud: you théoricien théâtre . Institut d'études théâtrales . Paris 1964.
  2. Biography at novarina.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  3. ^ Christian Prigent: Ne me faites pas dire ce que je n'écris pas (Christian Prigent in conversation with the psychoanalyst Hervé Castanet ). Cadex editions. Paris 2004. pp. 117f.
  4. Expositions at novarina.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  5. Mises en scène de Valère Novarina at novarina.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  6. Entrée au répertoire de Valère Novarina à la Comédie-Française at fresques.ina.fr , accessed on January 19, 2017
  7. ^ L'Acte inconnu at festival-avignon.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  8. Le Vrai sang ( Memento of the original from January 21, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. at theatre-odeon.eu , accessed January 19, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.theatre-odeon.eu
  9. POUR LOUIS DE FUNÈS at novarina.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  10. VOUS QUI HABITEZ LE TEMPS at novarina.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  11. Créations sonores at novarina.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  12. biography at pol-editeur.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  13. Traductions in novarina.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  14. Valère Novarina at matthes-seitz-berlin.de , accessed on January 19, 2017
  15. Valère Novarina at alexander-verlag.com , accessed on January 19, 2017
  16. Scène 6 at verlagderautoren.de , accessed on January 19, 2017
  17. Valère Novarina at theaterderzeit.de , accessed on January 19, 2017
  18. a b Constanze Fröhlich: Poetics of Abundance. Winter. Heidelberg 2014. (b p. 81ff., P. 101ff.)
  19. a b c d e Kerstin Beyerlein: The post-dramatic literary theater by Valère Novarina. Königshausen & Neumann. Würzburg 2015. (b p. 96ff., 129ff .; c p. 99; d p. 103, 105; e p. 110)
  20. a b c d Valère Novarina: Lights of the body. Matthes & Seitz. Berlin 2011. (a p. 20; b p. 29ff .; c p. 91ff .; d p. 119).
  21. ^ A b Valère Novarina: Le Théâtre des paroles . POL Paris 1989. (a p. 46; b p. 153)
  22. ^ Hans-Thies Lehmann: Post-dramatic theater . Frankfurt am Main. 2005, p. 367.
  23. Erika Fischer-Lichte: Aesthetics of the Performative . Frankfurt am Main. 2005.
  24. Bernd Sucher ( Memento of the original from January 19, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. at mydict.com , accessed January 19, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.mydict.com
  25. ^ Leopold von Verschuer: Free fall and dance in language - translate Novarina . drama booklet [di: rampe] No. 8, published by Theater Rampe. Stuttgart 2002.
  26. Marie-Hélène Boblet: L'Animalitude en Scène: Le Théâtre des Paroles de Valère Novarina . Contemporary French and Francophone Studies. 2012.
  27. See also: Interview with Valère Novarina by Thierry Guichard in Le Matricule des Anges, magazine for contemporary literature, Internet edition www.lmda.net, accessed on January 20, 2017
  28. Allen S. Weiss: Shattered Forms: Art Brut, Phantasms, Modernism . State University of New York Press. 1992. Chap. 8, note p. 143.
  29. Louis Dieuzayde: Le théâtre de Valere Novarina: une scène de délivrance . Publications de l'université de Provence. Aix-en-Provence 2004. p. 76.
  30. ^ Entry: Valère Novarina . In: Dictionnaire de la Littérature française du XXe siècle. Encyclopaedia Universalis France. Boulogne-Billancourt. 2015.