Wilhelm Schallmayer

Wilhelm Schallmayer

Friedrich Wilhelm Schallmayer (born February 10, 1857 in Mindelheim , † October 4, 1919 in Krailling ) was a German doctor . Together with Alfred Ploetz , he is considered the founder of eugenics and racial hygiene in Germany.

Life

Schallmayer was born on February 10, 1857 in Mindelheim in the Bavarian Swabia and was the oldest of eleven siblings. The father was a wagon entrepreneur. He attended grammar school in Neuburg an der Donau and in Augsburg . He did his military service as a one-year volunteer in Würzburg .

Wilhelm Schallmayer first studied law and philosophy , but then turned to studying medicine in Leipzig and Munich . During his studies he became a member of the AGV Munich in the special houses association . In 1884 he passed the state examination as an assistant to Bernhard von Gudden . In 1886 he received his doctorate from Munich University. He then completed further training in urology and venereology in Vienna , Leipzig and Dresden . He worked as a general practitioner in Kaufbeuren , where he met and married his first wife. In 1894 he gave up the practice and spent a year as a ship's doctor in China , a position he was offered on the occasion of a trip to East Asia . Back in Germany, he worked as a specialist in Düsseldorf for 7 years and as a private scholar for the rest of his life. In 1909 the first woman died. In 1911 he married again. The two children Friedrich and Wiltrud emerged from this marriage. The last years up to his death in 1919 he spent secluded in Krailling near Munich.

Schallmayer suffered from asthma and severe heart problems in the last years of his life. He died of a heart attack on October 4, 1919.

Schallmayer's philosophy

Schallmayer was sponsored by Ernst Haeckel . Like Haeckel, he was a member of the Monistenbund . Schallmayer was democratic , internationalist and pacifist ; he did not think much of the monarchy of the empire and wrote in all editions of his book Inheritance and Selection : "The future belongs to democracy in all civilized countries of the world". He was close to socialist ideas and considered himself part of the political left . He has dealt intensively with socialism since his youth, but was not bound by party or class. He rejected an egalitarian socialism (in terms of the results) and instead advocated equal opportunities from a social Darwinist perspective . So he raised the demand that the "external competitive conditions for the youth in every respect as much as possible should be designed equally".

Schallmayer was one of the early champions of European unification . As early as 1899, in the Cologne weekly “ Das neue Jahrhundert ” ( The New Century ) , he propagated a European association of states that would encompass continental Europe without Russia and not be under German rule. The aim of this united Europe should be the avoidance of war, in which Schallmayer saw an outdated form of the struggle for existence that had a "counter-selective" effect. The competition between peoples and nations should instead be carried out using the means of culture and civilization. He did not share the nationalist enthusiasm at the beginning of the First World War . According to Schallmayer, the danger of war should be averted by the “creation of a large federal state comprising the majority of European states with only one armed forces common to the connected states,” as he argued in the 1915 essay Untimely Thoughts on Europe's Future . In its consociative design, his peace policy draft shows remarkable institutional parallels to the later European Union . Schallmayer, however, had little hope that his ideas would soon be realized because “the hatred of nations, which has been greatly increased by the current war, must give way to a more forgiving attitude”. He also saw the danger that "[t] he mangling and economic weakening of the European peoples [..] will [...] be repeated in further wars."

Act

The physician became known through the award-winning work “ Inheritance and selection in the life course of the peoples ”, which was published in 1903, heavily revised. With this publication he took part in a competition organized by the industrialist Friedrich Alfred Krupp in 1900 on the subject of "What do we learn from the principles of the theory of descent in relation to domestic political developments and state legislation?" The competition was organized and assessed by Ernst Haeckel.

“ Inheritance and selection ” became the leading textbook for racial hygiene until after the end of the First World War. The holder of the first chair for racial hygiene, which was also a leader in the Nazi era , Fritz Lenz called it the classic masterpiece of German racial hygiene in 1919.

Already in 1891, Schallmayer had written the first “racially hygienic” publication in Germany with the then little-noticed treatise “ On the threatening physical degeneration of civilized humanity”, in which he praised Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and addressed the question of the effects of modern medicine on “ human selection ”and the development of the human species in general. In this paper, Schallmayer advocated the thesis that the therapeutic successes of medicine are useful for the individual sick person, but that they do not “ cure the human species” , since they counteract the selective function of the disease, which only allows the strongest to survive. For this reason, the medical discipline of hygiene must have an “improving effect on human selection” .

In contrast to Francis Galton , the actual founder of eugenics, Schallmayer was initially not concerned with positive eugenics, i.e. increasing the number of offspring with high hereditary qualities, but rather with negative eugenics by reducing the offspring of people with lower hereditary qualities and thus to combat the physical “degeneration” of the human “race” , whereby this negative eugenics was limited to the voluntary renunciation of the hereditary illnesses to offspring. The commonality with Galton and with other eugenicists such as Alfred Hegar and Alfred Ploetz consisted in the orientation towards future generations, that is, towards the "race" instead of the individual human being as in traditional medicine. Following the degeneration theory of the French psychiatrist Bénédict Augustin Morel , Schallmayer also adhered to the theory of the inheritance of acquired illnesses as the cause of the development of mental illnesses and to progressive inheritance . With the adoption of progressive inheritance, the reproduction of people with acquired diseases had to lead to progressive degeneration (degeneration) of humanity. Like Alfred Ploetz and above all Auguste Forel , Schallmayer accepted the danger of poisons, especially ethanol . Schallmayer agreed with Forel's opinion that alcoholism was "a main source, probably even the main source of the progressive signs of degeneration of our day" (Heredity and selection in the life course of peoples, p. 154), but later relativized this opinion. In addition, the problem of mental illnesses played a special role in the degeneration of Schallmayer.

Racial hygiene, racial hygiene, eugenics

Schallmayer spoke out in favor of a more neutral term than that of racial hygiene, but could not prevail. He himself spoke of “racial hygiene” instead of “ race n hygiene ” in order to distinguish himself from the increasing typological use of the term “race” , which was mainly related to the fashionable reception of Gobineau . He also suggested “ national biology ” (analogous to “ national economy ”). He also considered adopting the word eugenics, coined by Francis Galton as early as 1883, ("Eugenics"). Schallmayer understood racial hygiene, in contrast to "personal hygiene", to be the part of hygiene that deals with the genetic makeup. In addition to racial hygiene, he also liked to use the word " racial service ", which had the same meaning for him.

In this context, Schallmayer distanced himself from the "Nordic idea" of his colleague Alfred Ploetz. In contrast to other racial hygienists, he represented a rather "moderate racism" .

He introduced the term social eugenics for the "doctrine of the conditions under which a population maintains favorable genes and increases them" .

In a competition initiated by Heinrich Ernst Ziegler in 1900, the jury awarded Schallmeyer the prize donated by Alfred Krupp in the amount of 30,000 Reichsmarks for his book Heredity and Selection in the Lives of the Nations . In it he criticized public health care because of its negative effects on eugenics and spoke explicitly of the “selective effect of child mortality”.

reception

In addition to Alfred Ploetz, Schallmayer is considered the founder of racial hygiene in Germany. For Hermann Werner Siemens , Schallmayer was a "pioneer for racial hygiene in our fatherland" . For Max von Gruber , he was the first German to fully understand the immense value of Darwin's laws for the human race. Fritz Lenz stated that no one had achieved more for racial hygiene.

After the Second World War , Schallmayer was also referred to - “despite monistic, socialist and internationalist tendencies” - as the “ pioneer of Nazi racial hygiene ”. With his work “On the threatening physical degeneration of civilized mankind and the nationalization of the medical profession” he had “opened the round of numerous recommendations ” as early as 1891 [...] how one could improve “human selection ” in order to get through to be able to ward off the "dangers of degeneration" caused by modern mass civilization and urbanization .

The National Socialist side criticized the fact that Schallmayer was still partially caught up in ideas about milieu theory . However, this did not prevent Nazi “racial researchers” from relating positively to Schallmayer. The well-known propagandist of the "Nordic" racial hygiene Hans FK Günther , for example, referred to Schallmayer as a "scientific" ancestor.

The standard work " Human Heredity and Racial Hygiene " by Erwin Baur , Eugen Fischer and Fritz Lenz, which gradually replaced Schallmayer's standard work after 1920 and was even received by Adolf Hitler , referred strongly to the forerunner " Heredity and Selection ".

Racial hygiene became a compulsory subject for doctors in the Nazi state, whereby the National Socialists, according to the Göttingen human geneticist Peter Emil Becker (1988), “ the unfortunate and fatal echo of racial differences (was) just right to propagate the desired racial belief. “It sounded different in the original sound. Fritz Lenz stated in 1932, “ The state idea of ​​fascism is essentially related to the idea of ​​racial hygiene anyway. "

In contrast to the Nazi racial hygiene, Schallmayer rejected the extermination of people. In addition to positive eugenics, for example by means of social hygiene , in particular the improvement of the education and school system, the administration of justice and through social policy measures, at best negative eugenics to reduce the offspring of people with lower hereditary qualities, in particular through marriage bans: "This conscious or artificial selection In humans, of course, would not have to avail himself of the extermination of individuals who do not meet the respective relevant requirements for selection, but would have to consist in their mere keeping away from reproduction, i.e. H. in the refusal of marriage by custom or law. We will come back to the obvious objection that after all, extramarital reproduction is still open to them (under health care), we will come back to them in more detail. "(" Inheritance and selection in the life course of peoples ", 1903). Compared to measures of negative eugenics such as marriage bans, Schallmayer gave priority to quantitative population policy.

According to Michel Schwarz, Schallmayer was violently attacked by right-wing Social Darwinists , like the Social Democrat Alfred Grotjahn , who was also a member of the Society for Racial Hygiene . Schallmayer "sought proximity to Grotjahn as early as the turn of the century and emphasized his conviction that socialism was the best social basis for eugenics" . Grotjahn in turn followed up with Schallmayer when he explained that social hygiene and eugenic " prevention of physical degeneration " " collide in some points ", but completely agree in their " ultimate goals ". Social hygiene and social policy could at least indirectly have an eugenic effect, whereby they would have the advantage of being able to become effective in practice immediately. According to Michael Schwarz, there was a “ socialist eugenics discourse ” that insisted on a clear distinction between eugenics and social Darwinism and between eugenics and racial anthropology . This " socialist eugenics discourse " was logically linked to anti-racist eugenicists like Schallmayer and with this orientation after 1918 - in association with similarly oriented political parties such as the center or the liberals - would have contributed to a clear delimitation of the majority to bring about organized racial hygiene from racial anthropology.

On the other hand, Grotjahn clearly distinguished himself from Schallmayer. So he set off his own approach as empirical compared to the Darwinist approach of Ploetz and Schallmayer. The Göttingen human geneticist Peter Emil Becker stated that Grotjahn admitted to racial hygiene, but it should “be decoupled from social Darwinism. It is true that one can come to eugenic conclusions solely from the insight into certain social hygiene deficiencies, but eugenics is clearly based on Darwin's theory of selection, and the socialist Grotjahn wanted to hide it from his social hygiene ”.

"Detachment from political anthropology, independence from Darwinism and the closest connection with social hygiene - these are the indispensable prerequisites for eugenics that can be developed in theory and practice," wrote Grotjahn seven years after Schallmayer's death, a view that the deceased Social Darwinist did not share during his lifetime.

Jürgen Reyer also contradicts Michael Schwarz's point of view when he states that Schallmayer, with his theorem of the “inequality of the intellectual talents of the human races ”, also succumbed to the “ basic racism of racial anthropology ”. Schallmayer's criticism of the “excessive cultivation of Nordic racial arrogance” by his colleagues could not be interpreted as anti-racism. Rather, like Alfred Ploetz and other racial hygienists, Schallmayer can be classified in the “International of Racists” .

Fonts

Monographs

• Refusal to eat and the other disturbances in eating in the insane. Med. Diss., Munich 1885
• The threatening physical degeneration of the civilized peoples , Berlin / Neuwied o. J.
• The threatening physical degeneration of the civilized peoples and the nationalization of the medical profession. 2nd edition, Heuser, Berlin and Neuwied 1895.
• Inheritance and selection in the life course of peoples. A political science study on the basis of the more recent biology , series' Nature and State, Contributions to the scientific social theory; A collection of price publications', 386 pages, Fischer Verlag Jena 1903
• Contributions to a national biology, Hermann Costenoble, Jena 1905
• Inheritance and selection as factors in the efficiency and degeneration of peoples , Deutscher Monistenbund: pamphlets of the German Monistenbund, issue 5, 39 p., Commission publisher by Dr. W. Breitenbach, Brackwede iW 1907
• Inheritance and selection in their sociological and political significance: award-winning study on folk degeneration and folk seugenics , XVIII, 463 p., 2nd edition, Fischer Verlag Jena 1910
• Inheritance and selection. Outline of social biology and the doctrine of racial service , X, 535 p., 3rd edition, Gustav Fischer, Jena 1918 (The 4th edition, Jena 1920, is an unchanged reprint of the 3rd edition)

Essays

• A Ministry of Medicine. The New Century 2 (1899), pp. 390–395.
• A lookout for friends of peace. The New Century 2 (1899), pp. 771-773, 788-791.
• Natural and historical selection among wild and highly cultivated peoples. Politico-anthropological Revue 1 (1902), pp. 245–272.
• Infection as a morning gift. Journal for Combating Venereal Diseases 2 (1903-1904), pp. 389-419.
• On the incursion of the natural sciences into the field of the humanities. Archive for Race and Society Biology 1, 1904, pp. 586–597.
• Effects of improved standard of living and successes in hygiene as supposed evidence against selection theory and the question of degeneration. ARGB 1, 1904, pp. 53-77.
• The sociological significance of the offspring of the gifted and the psychological inheritance. ARGB 2, 1905, pp. 36-75.
• Culture and degeneration. Monthly for Social Medicine and Hygiene 1 (1906), pp. 481-495, 544-554.
• Selective viewpoints on the generative and cultural development of peoples. Schmoller's Yearbook for Legislation and Administration 30 (1906), pp. 421–449.
• About the relationship between individual and social hygiene and the goals of generative hygiene. Journal of Social Medicine 2 (1906), pp. 331-343.
• Racial Hygiene and Socialism. Die neue Zeit 25 (1906-1907), pp. 731-740.
• The genetic development among peoples as a theoretical and practical problem. Human Goals (1907), pp. 44-49, 92-97.
• Selection in Man: A Response. Journal for philosophical criticism 129 (1907), pp. 136–154.
• Eugenics, attitude to life and selection. In: Zeitschrift für Sozialwissenschaft 11, 1908, pp. 267–277.
• The selective effects of war. Human Goals (1908), pp. 381-385.
• The war as a breeder. ARGB 5 (1908), pp. 364-400.
• The policy of fertility restrictions. In: Zeitschrift für Politik 2, 1908, pp. 391–439.
• What can we expect from our social insurance system for the hereditary qualities of the population? Archive for Social Hygiene and Demography 3 (1909), pp. 27-65.
• Generative ethics. ARGB 6 (1909), pp. 199-231.
• About the basic meaning of ethics and their relation to the demands of the race service. Die neue Generation 6 (1910), pp. 433-438, 483-496.
• Gobineau's racial work and the modern Gobinese school. Zeitschrift für Sozialwissenschaft, NF, 1 (1910), pp. 553-572.
• Socialist development and population theory. Zeitschrift für Sozialwissenschaft, NF, 2 (1911), pp. 511-530.
• Race service. Sexualprobleme (1911), pp. 433-443, 534-547.
• Racial hygiene and other hygiene. ARGB 9 (1912), pp. 217-221.
• Social measures to improve reproductive selection. In: M. Mosse, G. Tugendreich (Ed.): Illness and social situation . JF Lehmann, Munich 1913, pp. 841-859.
• Ernst Haeckel and eugenics. In: Heinrich Schmidt (ed.): What we owe to Ernst Haeckel 2, Unesma, Leipzig 1914, pp. 367–372.
• Eugenics, its foundations and its relations to the cultural uplift of women. In: Archiv für Frauenkunde and Konstitutionforschung , 1914, pp. 281–291.
• Social hygiene and eugenics. In: Zeitschrift für Sozialwissenschaft, NF 5, 1914, pp. 329–339, 397–408, 505–513.
• Breed problems. Zeitschrift für Politik 8 (1914), pp. 412–427.
• Untimely thoughts about Europe's future. ARGB 11 (1914-1915), pp. 449-456.
• On the population policy towards the surplus of women caused by the war. ARGB 11 (1914-1915), pp. 713-737.
• Do we need racial hygiene? The practical doctor (1916), pp. 47-50, 71-74, 170-176, 195-202.
• War literature on population politics. Zeitschrift für Politik 10 (1917), pp. 441–468.
• Introduction to Breed Hygiene . In: Wolfgang Weichhardt (ed.), Results of Hygiene, Bacteriology, Immunity Research and Experimental Therapy. 2nd volume , Berlin 1917, pp. 433-532.
• War effects on the national body and their healing. Die Umschau 22 (1918), pp. 1-24.
• Basics of Heredity. In Artificial Miscarriage and Artificial Infertility: Their Indications, Technique and Legal Situation, edited by Siegfried Placzek, 1–48. G. Thieme, Leipzig 1918.
• New tasks and new organization of health policy. Archive for Hygiene and Demography 13 (1919), pp. 225–270.
• Socialism from the socio-biological point of view. The Umschau 23 (1919): 17-20.
• Securing young people and socializing the costs of young people. Die Umschau 23 (1919), pp. 497-500, 517-520.
• Women's progress and young people. The Coming Sex 1 (1921), pp. 17-21.

literature

• Peter Emil Becker: Social Darwinism, Racism, Anti-Semitism and Völkischer Thought , Ways into the Third Reich, Vol. 2, X, 644 S., Thieme, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-13-736901-0
• Peter Emil Becker: On the history of racial hygiene. Paths into the Third Reich , IX, 403 pp., Thieme, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-13-716901-1 (Chapter Wilhelm Schallmayer, pp. 3–55)
• Stefan Breuer : Orders of inequality - the German right in the conflict of their ideas 1871-1945 , 424 p., Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2001, ISBN 3-534-15575-0 (chapter “Blood” p. 47-76, especially the section "Racial Hygienist" p. 61 ff.)
• Bernhard vom Brocke : Population science - quo vadis ?. Possibilities and problems of a history of population science in Germany , 454 p., Leske + Budrich, Opladen 1998, ISBN 3-8100-2070-2
• Klaus-Peter Drechsel: Judged - measured - murdered. The practice of euthanasia until the end of German fascism . ISBN 3-927388-37-8 , p. 116 ff.
• Max von Gruber : Wilhelm Schallmayer , in Archive for Race and Social Biology (ARGB) Vol. 14 (1922), pp. 53–56
• Clemens Jesenitschnig: Racial Hygienic Pacifism? Wilhelm Schallmayer's draft of a “European Union” to keep peace . In: Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 95, Issue 2, 2013, pp. 375–411.
• Hans-Peter Kröner:  Schallmayer, Friedrich Wilhelm. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 22, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-428-11203-2 , p. 553 f. ( Digitized version ).
• Fritz Lenz : Wilhelm Schallmayer . In: Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift , Vol. 66, 1919, pp. 1294-1296
• Rainer Mackensen (Ed.): Population doctrine and population policy in the "Third Reich" . On behalf of the German Society for Demography e. V. in cooperation with the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, 360 pages, Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2004, ISBN 3-8100-3861-X (Congress report Berlin 2001)
• Jürgen Peter: The breach of racial hygiene in medicine. Impact of racial hygiene on thought collectives and medical specialties from 1918 to 1934 . Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-935964-33-1 .
• Michael Schwartz : Socialist Eugenics. Eugenic social technologies in debates and politics of the German social democracy 1890-1933 , Research Institute of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung , series Political and Social History Volume 42, 367 p., Verlag Dietz Nachf., Bonn 1995 ISBN 3-8012-4066-5
• Peter Weingart , Jürgen Kroll, Kurt Bayertz : Race, Blood and Genes. History of eugenics and racial hygiene in Germany , 3rd edition, 746 pages, Frankfurt a. M. 2001 ISBN 3-518-28622-6
• Sheila Faith Weiss, Race Hygiene and National Efficiency: The Eugenics of Wilhelm Schallmayer , University of California Press, Berkeley 1987

Web links

• Literature by and about Wilhelm Schallmayer in the catalog of the German National Library

Individual evidence

1. ^ Werner E. Gerabek, Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil, Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte . de Gruyter, Berlin / New York, Nov. 2004, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 1288
2. ↑ Brockhaus Enzyklopädie , 19th edition 1986, under Schallmayer: “His work 'Inheritance and selection in the life course of peoples' published in 1903 is considered programmat. Basis of "racial hygiene" in the nat.-soc. Germany."
3. ^ Meyers Lexikon, 7th edition, 10th volume, Leipzig 1929, column 1119
4. ↑ Otto Grübel, Special Houses Association of German Student Choral Societies (SV): Cartel address book. As of March 1, 1914. Munich 1914, p. 115.
5. ↑ Quoted from Becker, Zur Geschichte der Rassenhygiene , p. 40.
6. ↑ Quoted from Weiss, Race Hygiene and National Efficiency , p. 86, note 68.
7. ↑ See Jesenitschnig, Rassenhygienischer Pazifismus?
8. ↑ Schallmayer, Untimely Thoughts , p. 449.
9. ↑ Cf. Jesenitschnig, Rassenhygienischer Pazifismus? , P. 407.
10. ↑ Schallmayer, Vererbung und Auslese , 3rd edition 1918, p. 497.
11. ↑ Schallmayer, Untimely Thoughts , p. 452.
12. ^ Fritz Lenz: Wilhelm Schallmayer . In: Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift , Vol. 66, 1919, p. 1295
13. ↑ Wilhelm Schallmayer , curiously enough, there are two publications with the same content in the literature for 1891, one “About the threatening physical degeneration of the cultural humanity” and “The threatening physical degeneration of the civilized peoples” , Neuwied 1891, the latter reprinted in Leipzig in 1895 and cited here, pp. 6 and 9
14. ↑ Michael Schwarz: Socialist Eugenics , p. 38
15. ^ Sheila Faith Weiss: Race Hygiene and National Efficiency. The Eugenics of Wilhelm Schallmayer , University of California Press, 1987, p. 104, footnote 60: “My statement that Schallmayer was nonracist holds only for his views regarding the Aryan themes of the Gobineau school. To be sure, Schallmayer did hold racist views with respect to blacks, and to a much lesser degree, Asians - a subject treated in the next chapter. It should be pointed out, however, that even with respect to the latter two groups, his racism was quite moderate compared to most of his contemporaries, especially his fellow eugenicists. "
16. ↑ Wilhelm Schallmayer: Selection as factors for efficiency and degeneration of the peoples , Brackwede 1907, page 10 ff., Here quoted from Andreas Lüddecke: The "Saller case" and the racial hygiene , Tectum, 1995
17. ^ Sigrid Stöckel: Infant care between social hygiene and eugenics: the example of Berlin in the Empire and in the Weimar Republic. Berlin 1996, p. 48.
18. ^ Hermann Werner Siemens: The biological foundations of race hygiene and population policy , JF Lehmann, Munich 1917, p. 10f
19. ^ Max von Gruber: Wilhelm Schallmayer , in Archive for Race and Society Biology (ARGB) Vol. 14 (1922), p. 53
20. ^ Fritz Lenz: Wilhelm Schallmayer . In: Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift , Vol. 66, 1919, p. 1294
21. ↑ ^{a b} Bernhard vom Brocke: Population science - quo vadis ?. Possibilities and problems of a history of population science in Germany , Leske + Budrich, Opladen 1998, ISBN 3-8100-2070-2 , p. 59
22. ↑ Hans FK Günther: The Nordic thought among the Germans . JF Lehmanns, Munich 1927, here p. 7f
23. ↑ Erwin Baur, Eugen Fischer, Fritz Lenz, Menschliche Erblichkeitslehre und Rassenhygiene , JF Lehmanns, Munich 1921, Vol. 1 p. 304 and Vol. 2, p. 232, Baur, Fischer and Lenz describe it in the literature appendix as a comprehensive work of importance for their textbook .
24. ^ Fritz Lenz: Menschliche Auslese und Rassenhygiene (Eugenik) , 4th ed., Lehmanns, Munich 1932, on p.415
25. ↑ Michael Schwartz: Socialist Eugenics , p. 171
26. ↑ ^{a b} Michael Schwartz: Socialist Eugenics , p. 72
27. ↑ Michael Schwartz: Socialist Eugenics , p. 73
28. ↑ Michael Schwartz: Socialist Eugenics , p. 77
29. ↑ Michael Schwartz: Socialist Eugenics , p. 332
30. ↑ Alfred Grotjahn, articles degeneration , in: Handbook of Social Hygiene . Edited by A. Grotjahn and I. Kaup, Vol. 2, Leipzig (1912), on p. 266
31. ↑ Peter Emil Becker, Social Darwinism, Racism, Anti-Semitism and Völkischer Thought. Paths into the Third Reich , Part II, Stuttgart, New York 1990, pp. 609f.
32. ^ Alfred Grotjahn, The Hygiene of Human Reproduction. An attempt at practical eugenics , Berlin / Vienna 1926, p. 99
33. ↑ Jürge Reyer, Eugenics and Pedagogy , Juventa 2003, p. 60f: