Anthroposophy

Anthroposophy, also called "spiritual science", is a spiritual/religious philosophy based on the teachings of Rudolf Steiner, which states that anyone who "conscientiously cultivates sense-free thinking" can attain experience of and insights into the spiritual world. Anthroposophical research seeks to attain in its investigations of the spiritual world the precision and clarity of natural science's investigations of the physical world, thus synthesizing science and religion. Spiritual "science" is not considered to be a science by the scientific community, however.

Anthroposophy is a path of knowledge to guide the Spirit of the human being to the Spiritual in the universe. It arises in man as a need of the heart, of the life of feeling: and it can be justified inasmuch as it can satisfy this inner need.

— Rudolf Steiner

The word anthroposophy is derived from the Greek roots anthropo meaning human, and sophia meaning wisdom. The term was first used by philosopher Robert von Zimmermann in his book Anthroposophy. Steiner borrowed this term when he founded his own process of spiritual study.

Overview

Rudolf Steiner identified mathematics, which attains certainty through inner experience rather than empirical observations, as the basis of his epistemology of spiritual experience.

The human being

Threefold view

Steiner often described the human being as consisting of an eternal spirit, an evolving soul and a temporal body, giving a detailed analysis of each of these three realms:

Spirit: though anthroposophical teachings describe the human spirit as eternal, it is becoming progressively more individualized and consciously experienced. Steiner believed that the human being passes between stages of existence, incarnating into an earthly body, living a life, leaving the body behind and entering into the spiritual worlds before returning to be born again into a new life on earth. In earthly life, the individuality or ego awakens to self-consciousness through its experience of its reflection in the deeds and suffering of a physical body.

Soul: We also have a framework of consciousness that includes our set feelings, concepts and intentions. As each human soul evolves through its experiences, the earth itself and civilization as a whole also evolve; thus, new types of experience are available at each successive incarnation.

Body: Steiner uses the term body to describe the aspects of human existence that endure for a single lifetime. The physical body is the most obvious of these. Permeating our physical existence are forces of life, growth and metamorphosis that maintain and develop the physical body; as it is an aspect of a lifetime that falls away after death, Steiner called this the life or etheric body. Steiner called that which receives sensory impressions the body of consciousness or sentient body.

A fourfold articulation of the human body often applied to contexts such as medicine and child education includes:

• the physical body as physical-material structure, held in common with the mineral world;
• the life or etheric body, the source of life and growth, held in common with the plant world;
• the consciousness or astral body, held in common with the animal world;
• the ego or "I" of the human being, the faculty of self-awareness unique to humanity

Physical body

The physical body is the carrier of the human form, from which all animal forms may be considered to be one-sided derivations. Steiner emphasized three primary functional areas, each supporting a particular psychological activity:

• the nerve/sense system, primarily centered in the nervous system, supporting thinking and perception
• the rhythmic system, including the breathing and the circulatory system, supporting feeling
• the digestive system, including the organs below the diaphragm, supporting willing

In his mature work, Steiner identified twelve senses: balance, or equilibrioception; movement, or proprioception; pain/well-being, or nociception, also called life sense; touch, or tactition; taste, or gustation; smell, or olfaction; warmth, or thermoception; sight, or vision; hearing, or audition; word / speech; thought / concept; ego / self.

Life or etheric body

All that lives has, in addition to a physical body, a permeating life organization. Steiner cites as proof of this the physical identity of a dead and living organism; what is lacking in the former is the element of life itself.

Organization of consciousness, or astral body

Animal life adds an element of sentience to the living world of plants. Steiner points to sleep life, when the physical body and life organization are identical with waking life, yet sentience is withdrawn, as proof that sentience is not purely a function of the physical and life bodies. Our concepts (and prejudices), emotions and will (and willfulness) reside here; these are relatively fixed, in contrast with our more fluid and active soul life.

Ego

Human existence includes an element distinct from animal consciousness, the ego. This supports self-awareness and self-reflection; Steiner points to the lack of a true biography, more particularly of autobiography in animal existence as an indication that the ego is particular to humans. The capacity for self-direction and full responsibility are connected to the ego, which only becomes independent around twenty-one years after conception.

Sevenfold view

In his sevenfold view, the human being is composed of physical-body, life-body, sentient-soul-body, intellectual-soul, spirit-consciousness-soul, life-spirit, and spirit-man. This view is similar to that found in Theosophy.

• the physical body,
• the life body, life processes,
• the sentient-soul body, interprets sensory information,
• the intellectual soul, reason and perception,
• the spirit-consciousness-soul, intuition and self,
• the life-spirit, home for the spirit-man,
• the spirit-man, the individual spirit separate from the spirit-world.

The threefold and sevenfold views are articulated in Steiner's Theosophy. A similar ninefold view was used in training the first teachers for the first Waldof school in Stuttgart, Study of Man: General Education Course. Anthroposophy suggests that human beings have inhabited earth since its creation as well as other planets , albeit in a spiritual form. This spiritual form then processed through a number of stages to reach its current form, stages which included emanations of lesser beings such as animals and plants, before the first physically incarnate humans appeared on earth. Anthroposophy thus suggests that every living thing has evolved or emanated from humankind in its purely spiritual form

Anthroposophy in Brief

Reincarnation and Karma

In his books Steiner described human existence as a cycle of birth, life, death, spiritual existence and a return to earth. This cycle includes evolution and development, however; it is not an eternal sameness. The individuality born into any earthly life bears with her both abilities and wisdom attained through previous incarnations, and obligations that arise through previous deeds. Much of human life is determined by these factors, but there are also new abilities attained, wisdom achieved and deeds accomplished that are not determined, but free achievements. We may suffer due to something in a past life; we may also suffer to gain the strength for something in a future life; — our sufferings and achievements are not necessarily predetermined.

Steiner described human existence between death and a new birth in detail as, first, a series of stages of laying aside the physical form, life experiences, thoughts, relationships, and cultural context of the last life; then the entry into spiritual experience proper; the decision to return to earth; the passage back, during which the cultural context, relationships, ideas, life experiences and physical form are chosen; and finally the re-entry into physical existence through conception and birth.

Lucifer and Ahriman

Lucifer and his counterpart Ahriman figure in Anthroposophy as two necessary components of human evolution that are balanced by the Christ being represented by the Archangel Michael. Steiner described both positive and negative aspects of both figures: Lucifer as the light spirit that motivates creativity, the wisdom of paganism and intellectual consciousness, the essence of spirituality; Ahriman as the dark spirit that brings practicality, nationalism, literalism, industrialism, the essence of materialism. Steiner described each human being's task - to find a balance between these opposing influences through Christ.

Steiner describes Lucifer as having incarnated in the third millennium B.C., while Ahriman is expected to incarnate in the present millennium - the third millennium A.D.

Practical work arising out of anthroposophy

Further information: [[:Rudolf Steiner's Practical initiatives]]

Practical results of Anthroposophy include work in many fields. These include:

Waldorf Education

Main article: Waldorf Schools

Out of the anthroposophical movement have come over 900 schools world-wide. These are often called Waldorf Schools, after the first such school, founded in 1919; they are also sometimes called Steiner Schools. Sixteen Waldorf schools in 14 countries have been affiliated with the United Nations' UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network, a program which sponsors education projects which foster improved quality of education throughout the world, in particular in terms of its ethical, cultural and international dimensions. Waldorf schools receive full or partial governmental funding in some European nations and in parts of the United States (as Waldorf methods public or charter schools). Since the first school opened in Germany at the end of World War I, Waldorf education has spread to every continent, and has been characterized as "the leader of the international movement for a New Education", Schools based on Steiner education are found in a wide variety of communities and cultures: the impoverished favelas of San Paulo and the wealthy suburbs of New York City, in India, Egypt, Australia, Holland and Mexico. Schools are usually initiated and later supported by an active parent community. Waldorf education is one of the most visible practical applications of an anthroposophical view and understanding of the human being.

Biodynamic agriculture

Main article: Biodynamic agriculture

Biodynamic agriculture began in the 1920s. Numerous bio-dynamic farms now exist in a great number of countries. Steiner must be counted as one of the two original founders of the modern organic farming movement (the other was Sir Albert Howard). Steiner's Agriculture Course was the first published work on organic agriculture, appearing 16 years before Howard's An Agricultural Testament, and significant parts of the present-day organic movement, especially in Europe, can be traced back to people wholly or partially inspired by the biodynamic approach. Bio-dynamic agriculture emphasizes activating the life of the soil and treating each farm as a living organism that includes human beings, animals, plants and the soil.

Anthroposophical medicine

Main article: Anthroposophical medicine

Steiner gave several series of lectures to physicians, and out of this grew a medical movement that now includes hundreds of M.D.s, chiefly in Europe and North America, and that has its own clinics, hospitals and medical universities. Steiner wanted Anthroposophical medicine to be an extension of, not an alternative to, conventional medical approaches, and from its beginning a conventional medical training has been required to become an anthroposophical doctor. Anthroposophical medicine uses many kinds of remedies and therapies, including many developed on the basis of a revised homeopathy. Several medium-sized pharmaceutical firms (notably Weleda and Wala) specialize in anthroposophical remedies.

Other fields of work include an original cancer therapy based on mistletoe extracts developed by anthroposophical researchers. This is an accepted and widely used medical treatment in Germany and the European Union. A review of studies of mistletoe includes studies showing that Iscador (mistletoe) has been shown to be effective against cancers in animals, but that its efficacy in humans is unclear. The National Cancer Institute has concluded that while mistletoe "has been shown to kill cancer cells in the laboratory and to boost the immune system" in animals, nearly all of the studies had major weaknesses that raise doubts about the reliability of the findings."

There is some evidence that children from anthroposophical families have a lower incidence of atopic allergic reactions, however this may be attributable to multiple lifestyle factors associated with anthroposophy that may lessen the risk of atopy in childhood.

Centers for helping the mentally handicapped (including Camphill Villages)

Early in the twentieth century, when proper care for the handicapped was sadly ignored in many countries, anthroposophical homes and communities were founded to give a worthy life-style to the needy. The first was the Sonnenhof in Switzerland, founded by Ita Wegman; slightly later, the Camphill Movement was founded by Karl König in Scotland. The latter in particular has spread widely, and there are now well over a hundred Camphill communities and other anthroposophical homes for both children and adults in more than twenty-two countries around the world.

Organizational development and biography work

Bernard Lievegoed founded a new study of individual and institutional development; this is represented by the NPI Institute for Organisational Development in Holland and sister organizations in many other countries. Clients of these institutions range from some of the world's largest industrial firms to ordinary people trying to understand their own lives. One of the more interesting areas of application has been in transforming impoverished people's lives by bringing them to recognize and begin to realize their own biographical goals. Social work with prisoners shares these goals and has had the effect of bringing new purpose into many lives.

Banking

Anthroposophical banks were among the first to emphasize socially-responsible and community-based banking. Today around the world there are a number of innovative banks, companies, charitable institutions, and schools for developing new cooperative forms of business, all working partly out of Steiner’s social ideas. One example is The Rudolf Steiner Foundation, incorporated in 1984, and as of 2004 with estimated assets of $70 million. RSF provides "charitable innovative financial services". According to the independent organizations Co-op America and the Social Investment Forum Foundation, RSF is "one of the top 10 best organizations exemplifying the building of economic opportunity and hope for individuals through community investing." The first bank founded out of Steiner's ideas was the Gemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken in Bochum, Germany; it was started in 1974.

Architecture

Steiner himself designed around thirteen buildings, many of them significant works in a unique, organic-expressionistic style. Foremost among these are his two designs for the Goetheanum. Thousands of further buildings have been built by a later generation of anthroposophic architects. Well-known architects who have been strongly influenced by the anthroposophic style include Imre Makovecz (HU), Hans Scharoun and Joachim Eble (DE), Erik Asmussen (SW), Kenji Imai (Japan), Thomas Rau, Anton Alberts and Max van Huut (NL), Christopher Day and Camphill Architects (UK), Thompson and Rose (USA), Denis Bowman (CA), and Gregory Burgess (Australia).

One of the most famous contemporary buildings by an anthroposophical architect is the ING Bank in Amsterdam, which has been given many awards for its ecological design and approach to a self-sustaining ecology as an autonomous building.

Eurythmy

In the arts, Steiner's new art of eurythmy gained early renown, gaining a prize at a pre-World War II World Exposition in Paris. Eurythmy seeks to renew the spiritual foundations of dance, transforming speech and music into visible movement. There are now active stage groups and training centers, mostly of modest proportions, in many countries.

Speech and Drama

There are also movements to renew speech and drama. The former go back to the work of Marie Steiner-von Sivers; among the better known of the latter is the approach founded by Michael Chekhov, the nephew of the playwright Anton Chekhov.

Other areas

Other areas of anthroposophic work include:

• John Wilkes' fountain-like Flowforms. These sculptural forms guide water into rhythmic movement, and are used both decoratively and for water treatment in small to medium-scale applications.
• Astrosophy as opposed to Astrology,
• Phenomenological approaches to science,
• Painting and sculpture.

Social Goals of Anthroposophy

For a period after World War I, Steiner was extremely active and well-known in Germany in part because in many places he gave lectures on social questions. A petition expressing his basic social ideas (signed by Herman Hesse, among others) was very widely circulated. His main book on social questions, Die Kernpunkte der Sozialen Frage (available in English today as Toward Social Renewal) sold tens of thousands of copies.

Steiner's Outlook on Social History

In Steiner's various writings and lectures he held that there were three main spheres of power comprising human society: the cultural, the economic and the political. In ancient times, those who had political power were also generally those with the greatest cultural/religious power and the greatest economic power. Culture, State and Economy were fused (for example in ancient Egypt). With the emergence of classical Greece and Rome, the three spheres began to become more autonomous. This autonomy went on increasing over the centuries, and with the slow rise of egalitarianism and individualism, the failure adequately to separate economics, politics and culture was felt increasingly as a source of injustice.

Anthroposophy has its own concept of history: according to Steiner our present time falls into the post-Atlantean period, since in his view the disaster that he says hit Atlantis in 7227 BC was a significant turning point in the history of man. This post-Atlantean period is divided by him into seven epochs, the current one being the European-American Epoch, which Steiner said would last until about the year 3573.

Social Threefolding

Main article: Social Threefolding

There are three kinds of social separations Steiner wanted strengthened. This is known as Social Threefolding ,

1. Increased separation between the State and cultural life
2. Increased separation between the economy and cultural life
3. Increased separation between the State and the economy (stakeholder economics)

According to Ehrenfried Pfeiffer, Steiner had a spiritual reason behind social threefolding (and Waldorf Education), preparing for the incarnation of the spirit of Manes (Manu). "The threefold social order of Rudolf Steiner is particularly a preparatory work to bring about a future incarnation of Manes. I once discussed with Rudolf Steiner the question of when would be the proper time for the application of etheric forces for technical uses. He said that this would be when the threefold order is established. He said that Manes could not find a suitable body yet, that all the forces he would be able to bring to an incarnation would be destroyed by modern education. Therefore he said that Waldorf education needed first to come into being and that the threefold social order must also come into being. Therefore I would see it as our immediate task to bring about this threefold order first through thought and then through action, so that Manes can incarnate. By karma, Manes' incarnation would be due by the end of the century. Whether this will be possible I do not know, but if the threefold social order and Waldorf education were established he could incarnate. I see it as our task to make the preparations so that he can incarnate again."

This was confirmed by Bernard Lievegoed "Rudolf Steiner once said to Pfeiffer that he had started the Waldorf school and the threefold social order to make the incarnation of Manu and his helpers possible. Let us hope there are enough active anthroposophists to accomplish what Manu needs for his development. And let us hope anthroposophists will recognize him once he is here."

Esoteric path

A person seeking inner development must first of all make the attempt to give up certain formerly held inclinations. Then, new inclinations must be acquired by constantly holding the thought of such inclinations, virtues or characteristics in one's mind. They must be so incorporated into one's being that a person becomes enabled to alter his soul by his own will-power. This must be tried as objectively as a chemical might be tested in an experiment. A person who has never endeavored to change his soul, who has never made the initial decision to develop the qualities of endurance, steadfastness and calm logical thinking, or a person who has such decisions but has given up because he did not succeed in a week, a month, a year or a decade, will never conclude anything inwardly about these truths.

— Rudolf Steiner, "On the Inner Life", [15]

Paths of spiritual development

According to Steiner, a real spiritual world exists out of which the material one gradually condensed, and evolved. The spiritual world, Steiner held, can in the right circumstances be researched through direct experience, by persons practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline. Steiner described many exercises he said were suited to strengthening such self-discipline. Details about the spiritual world, he said, could on such a basis be discovered and reported, not infallibly, but with approximate accuracy.

Steiner regarded his research reports as being important aids to others seeking to enter into spiritual experience. He suggested that a combination of spiritual exercises (for example, concentrating on an object such as a seed), moral development (control of thought, feelings and will combined with openness, tolerance and flexibility) and familiarity with other spiritual researchers' results would best further an individual's spiritual development. He consistently emphasized that any inner, spiritual practice should be undertaken in such a way as not to interfere with one's responsibilities in outer life.

Steiner often advised people avoid turning his work into a doctrine. He emphasized that any researcher, in any field, was able to make mistakes, and that both science and the world continued to evolve, making all results outdated after a certain time.

One of the central exercises of anthroposophy is to focus on a given content (this can be an outer object or a spiritual imagination) for a given time, and then to consciously eliminate the content from one's consciousness, allowing the process of attention to continue. We can become aware, thereby, of the activity of attention itself. A further step is then to dismiss this activity from one's consciousness. Behind the activity, Steiner suggested, would be found another level of spiritual reality. Steiner thus described a gradual experiential path from ordinary conceptual thinking into forms of thinking perceptive of living spiritual beings and mobile realities in the spiritual world.

The goals of spiritual developement are twofold. One branch focuses on the "inner activity" through which thoughts, feelings and intentions arise. Steiner suggested that for our modern consciousness it is most productive and leaves the esoteric student most free to start by focusing on thinking, which we today experience with more conscious clarity than feelings or will, – this is the path of spiritual science – but that it is in principle possible to achieve an esoteric training through a focus on feeling (mysticism) or the will life (ritual), as well. The latter cases may involve a sacrifice of clarity (on the mystic path) or freedom (on the path of ritual), however.

The second path of esoteric developement consists of revealing the normally hidden process by which the world's objective nature arises, and on subjective perceptions of it. This is the path of phenomenological science, also known as Goethean science. According to Steiner, this path leads to the perception of the spiritual beings that underlie world evolution, beginning with the elemental beings of nature.

The esoteric path of spiritual science

The anthroposophic path of esoteric training can be articulated into three steps, which do not necessarily follow strictly sequentially in any single individual's spiritual progress. The first step in this esoteric training is to recollect and follow how thought processes proceed in a particular situation, contemplating their sequential progression. Usually we attend to the thoughts themselves, the content that arises through thinking, and ignore the process by which they arise. By attending to the latter, we are examining an aspect of our experience that is normally hidden to us by the content itself. Philosophy – especially epistemology –, logic, and aspects of mathematics contemplate the structure and origin of our experience in this way, and thus belong to this first stage of esoteric training. This stage can be called the philosophical state.

A second stage is reached when we no longer, as is usual in philosophy or logic, reflect on past thinking processes, but rather focus our attention on our immediate thinking, on the thinking taking place in the moment of my attention. The unity of contemplating or experiencing subject and the object of contemplation/experienced content is complete here; my attention now focuses on itself, the content of my thinking is my thinking, is itself. This corresponds to the meditative state, known in some spiritual traditions as samidha, yoga or simply union. My inner activity is now simultaneously subjective – I experience myself bringing it forth – and objective – I experience it given to me as the content of my experience.

A third stage of esoteric training transforms the direction of the will, which is normally directed by the ego, i.e. from within, to an intended result in the outer world. When I seek to accomplish, not a transformation of outer conditions, but a transformation of my inner nature and self, I experience my inner condition – first of all, perhaps, my momentary thoughts, feelings and intentions, but later, my whole character and nature – as subject to my own conscious control. My soul life, which seemed to arise "naturally" and without my conscious participation, is progressively the result of my own conscious activity; I become the creator of my own inner life. Just as advances in technology allow us to progressively transform, more and more completely, the outer, naturally given world, that at an early stage of culture seems to be a factor beyond all human control, so do developments in our inner, moral capacities allow us to progressively transform our inner being to an extent – we discover on this path – only limited by our progress in developing these capacities.

Esoteric training thus consists of bringing this element of our experience – our character and inner nature – that usually plays into our experience without our conscious awareness of its contribution – into conscious focus and then control. The result of this path, according to Steiner, is the capacity to perceive the spiritual beings that underlie and generate inner experience, including those that direct our evolution from lifetime to lifetime and that influence our destiny. Steiner described this as a capacity to envision karma.

Practical exercises

Steiner described numerous exercises for spiritual development, and other anthroposophists have added many others. A central principle is that "for every step in spiritual perception, three steps are to be taken in moral development". Moral development reveals the extent to which one has achieved control over one's inner life and exercises this in a direction in harmony with others' spiritual life. It shows the real progress in spiritual development, the fruits of which are given in spiritual perception. It also guarantees the capacity to distinguish between false perceptions or illusions (which are possible in perceptions of both the outer world and the inner world) and true perceptions, or, better said, to distinguish in any perception between the influence of subjective elements (i.e. viewpoint) and the objective reality the perception points to.

Essential requirements

In order for a spiritual training to bear healthy fruits, Steiner suggested, a person would have to attend to the following:

• Striving to live in a health-giving manner – to develop a healthy body and soul.
• Feeling at one with all of life; to recognize oneself in everything, and everything in oneself; not to judge others without standing in their shoes.
• Recognizing that one's thoughts and feelings have as significant influence as one's deeds, and that work on one's inner life is as important as work on one's outer life.
• Recognizing that the true essence of a human being does not lie in the person's outer appearance, but rather in the inner nature, in the soul and spiritual existence of this person. Finding the genuine balance between having an open heart for the outer world's requirements and having inner strength and unshakeable endurance.
• The ability to be true to a decision once made, even in the face of daunting adversity, as long as the decision is still valid (until one comes to the conclusion that it was or is made in error).
• Developing thankfulness for everything that meets us, and that universal love that allows the world to reveal itself fully to me.
• Ceaselessly to live as these guidelines indicate.

Supplementary exercises

Steiner suggested that a special group of general exercises should accompany all spiritual training as their influence on inner development would be beneficial whatever the spiritual path. These exercises are:

• Practicing ever better control of thinking. For example: for a period of time – normally a few minutes, not longer – contemplate any object and concentrate one's thoughts exclusively on this object. (A crystal or a paper clip might do.)
• Development of initiative. For example, choose any free deed, i.e. one that nothing is influencing you to do, and choose a regular time of day or day of the week to practice this. (Watering a plant daily could be a freely chosen deed.)
• Equanimity. Quiet reactive emotions. Discover how to express one's true feelings sensitively.
• Positivity. See the positive aspects of everything, and make the best out of every situation.
• Open-mindedness. Be open to new experiences, never letting expectations based upon the past close your mind to the lessons of the moment.
• Harmony. Find a harmonious, balanced relationship between the above five qualities, be able to move dynamically between them.

Individual exercises

Some of the many exercises developed in anthroposophy include:

• Review of the day. Each evening, go backwards through the day recalling its events, its sequential unfolding (experienced here reversed in time), the people one met, etc.
• Experiencing the year's unfolding.
  • Drawing the same plant or tree or landscape over the course of a year.
  • Meditating the sequence of 52 mantric verses, the Calendar of the Soul, that Steiner wrote to deepen one's experience of the course of the seasons and the year and to bring the inner life of the soul into dialogue with nature.
• Building up an imagination independent of all outer experience, and then dissolving this imagination. The creative activity of imagination itself — the creative activity of the human spirit — can thus be experienced directly, stripped of the particular content with which it was occupied.

History

File:RSteiner.jpg

Rudolf Steiner.

In his early twenties, Steiner was asked to edit Goethe's scientific writings for a major publication of that writer's complete works. In the course of this work, Steiner began publishing various works that foreshadowed his later ideas, but were still set within the philosophical and scientific framework of his age: chiefly Goethe's Conception of the World and his commentaries on Goethe's scientific essays. His first work, Die Philosophie der Freiheit (translated variously as The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity, The Philosophy of Freedom, or Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path), was published when he was in his early thirties. Steiner developed a concept of free will that was strongly founded upon inner experiences, especially those that occur in independent thought, without any explicit references to the nature of these experiences. (see Philosophy of Freedom website)

Steiner's interests led him further and further into explicitly spiritual and philosophical research. These studies were chiefly interesting to others who were already oriented towards spiritual ideas; among these was the Theosophical Society. He was asked to lead the German section of this primarily Anglo-American group. His work was distinct from that of most other members of the Society (exceptions included Bertram Kingsley in England) and both he and the then president of the Theosophical Society appear to have 'agreed to disagree' in a harmonious way, at first. By 1907, however, there was a growing split between Steiner, who was trying to develop a path that embraced such cornerstones of Western civilizations as Christianity and natural science, and the mainstream Theosophical Society, which was oriented toward an Eastern, and especially Indian, approach.

The Anthroposophical Society was formed in 1912 after Steiner left the Theosophical Society Adyar over differences with its leader, Annie Besant. She intended to present to the world the child Jiddu Krishnamurti as Christ reincarnated. Steiner strongly objected, and considered any equation between Krishnamurti and Christ to be nonsense. This and the philosophical differences mentioned above led Steiner to leave the Theosophical Society. He was followed by a large number of members of the Theosophical Society's German Section, of which he had been secretary. Members of other national chapters of the Theosophical Society followed.

By this time, Steiner had reached considerable stature as a spiritual teacher. He claimed to have direct experiences of the Akashic Records (sometimes called the "Akasha Chronicle"), thought to be a spiritual chronicle of the history, pre-history and future of the world. In a number of works, Steiner described a path of inner development that he felt would enable anyone to attain comparable spiritual experiences. Sound vision could be developed in part by practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline, concentration and meditation; in particular, a person's moral development must precede the development of spiritual faculties.

After World War I, the Anthroposophical movement took on new directions. Practical projects such as schools, centers for the handicapped, organic farms and medical clinics were established, all inspired by Anthroposophy.

Steiner died in 1925, but anthroposophical work has continued in all of the areas established during his lifetime as well as in many new projects established since. Seminars, artistic trainings, and institutions such as schools, banks, farms and clinics exist throughout the world, all inspired by the idea that spiritual work can be systematically and methodically pursued in harmony with outer endeavors. The Goetheanum is the world center of the Anthroposophical movement; national, regional and local centers have grown up in many areas, however.

Place in Western Philosophy

Some of the epistemic basis for Steiner's later anthroposophical work is contained in the seminal work, The Philosophy of Freedom, as well as in Steiner's doctoral thesis, Truth and Science. These and several other early books by Steiner sought to overcome the dualism of Cartesian idealism and Kantian subjectivism by linking on to Goethe's conception of the human being as a natural-supernatural entity: natural in that humanity is a product of nature, supernatural in that through our conceptual powers we extend nature's realm, allowing it to achieve a reflective capacity in us as philosophy, art and science.

Like Edmund Husserl and Ortega y Gasset, Steiner was profoundly influenced by the works of both Franz Brentano, whose lectures he had heard as a student at the Technical University of Vienna, and Wilhelm Dilthey. Through Steiner's early epistemological and philosophical works, he became one of the first European philosophers to overcome the subject-object split that Descartes, classical physics, and various complex historical forces had impressed upon Western thought for several centuries. His philosophical work was taken up in the middle of the twentieth century by Owen Barfield, a philosopher of language from Oxford University and through him influenced the Inklings, a group that included such writers as J.R.R. Tolkien and C.S. Lewis. It was also taken up by the philosopher (and prolific author) Herbert Witzenmann. Steiner's philosophy has not found widespread recognition by academic philosophers outside of the anthroposophical movement, however; one exception is Richard Tarnas, author of The Passion of the Western Mind.

Steiner's philosophy begins with the division between our sensory experiences of the outer world and our soul experiences of an inner world consisting of thoughts, feelings and intentions (will impulses). He focused on how our thinking in particular complements what we experience through the senses; one facet of the world is its outer appearance, a second is its inner structure. Humans access the two separately but they are originally united in the objective world, and we have the capacity to reunite them through recognizing, within thinking itself, a relationship between our percepts and our concepts, between what we experience outwardly and inwardly. Steiner suggested that we only understand some part of the outer world when we find this connection between our sensory impressions of it and our concepts about it.

Thus, in his view, though all human experience begins being conditioned by the subject-object divide, through our own activity we can progressively overcome this divide. This lies in our free will, however; we are given the divide but not its overcoming.

Steiner also examines the step from thinking that is determined by outer impressions to what he calls sense-free thinking, characterizing thoughts without sensory content, such as mathematical or logical thoughts, as free deeds. He thus located the origin of the free will in our thinking, and in particular in sense-free thinking. Especially in his later work, Steiner points to the objective truths attainable through mathematics and logic as evidence of an objective non-sensory world - a world of spirit/mind that is not determined by the subjective nature of our inner experiences.

Possibility of a union of science and spirit

Steiner believed in the possibility of uniting the clarity of modern scientific thinking with the awareness of a spiritual world that lives in all religious and mystical experience. Science focuses on theories which can be tested and verified. Steiner tried to create an approach to what he called the "inner life" that would use the careful, systematic methodology created by modern science, but turn its attention to the soul and spirit.

In anthroposophy, artistic expression is treated as a potentially valuable bridge between spiritual and material reality. The aim is to reach higher levels of consciousness through meditation and observation. Steiner developed and described numerous systematic exercises which he maintained would realize these goals; the most complete exposition of these is found in his book Knowledge of Higher Worlds and its Attainment.

Relationship to religion

Multicultural emphasis

Steiner was early in seeing the challenges of a multicultural society. He articulated the need for a spirituality that could respect and unite all religions and cultures (and spoke in this context of twelve equally valid religions or religious viewpoints). His line of thought can be summarized as follows:

Many people, especially those of Eastern cultures, see the need for a spiritual basis for a culture. Others, especially in the West, live in a materialistic framework that has achieved astonishing results, especially through the achievements of modern science, but has abandoned its spiritual roots. Steiner suggested that, without a reconciliation of these two, a clash of cultures would be inevitable. He suggested that the East (for Steiner, characteristically spiritually centered people and peoples) would only respect the West (characteristically people and peoples who focus on external reality and achievements) when a new spirituality arose in the West, a spirituality that united the achievements of both cultures.

The Christ being as the center of earthly evolution

Steiner's writing, though appreciative of all religions and cultural developments, emphasizes recent Western mystery tradition (like the Knights Templar, Rosicrucianism and Holy Grail-Christianity rather than older Hindu or Buddhist traditions) as having evolved to meet contemporary needs. He describes Christ and his mission on earth as having a particularly important place in human evolution.

Steiner emphasized, however, that:

• Christianity has evolved out of previous religions,
• The being that manifests in Christianity also manifests in all faiths and religions,
• Each religion is valid and true for the time and cultural context in which it was born,
• The historical forms of Christianity need to be transformed considerably to meet the on-going evolution of humanity.

It is the being that unifies all religions, and not a particular religious faith, that Steiner saw as the central force in human evolution. This "Christ Being" is for Steiner not only the Redeemer of the Fall from Paradise, but also the unique pivot and meaning of earth's "evolutionary" processes and of human history, manifesting in all religions and cultures.

Steiner's Christianity differs from that of the Gnostics who viewed the Christ phenomenon through the knowledge gained through earlier gnosticism, whereas for Steiner, Christ's incarnation was a historical reality and a pivotal and unique point in human history. In a lecture explaining the relationship between Anthroposophy and Christianity, Steiner explained: "Spiritual science does not want to usurp the place of Christianity; on the contrary it would like to be instrumental in making Christianity understood. Thus it becomes clear to us through spiritual science that the being whom we call Christ is to be recognized as the center of life on earth, that the Christian religion is the ultimate religion for the earth's whole future. Spiritual science shows us particularly that the pre-Christian religions outgrow their one-sidedness and come together in the Christian faith. It is not the desire of spiritual science to set something else in the place of Christianity; rather it wants to contribute to a deeper, more heartfelt understanding of Christianity."

Divergence from conventional Christian thought

Steiner's views of Christianity diverge from conventional Christian thought in key places, and include gnostic elements. Only a very simplified account of those views can be given here, because though they only amount to about 4% of his total works, that 4% still amounts to about 15 volumes of books and lectures — and many of the other 335 or more volumes contain additional scattered comments on Christianity.

• One central point of divergency is Steiner's views on reincarnation and karma; these are explicated in the article on Anthroposophy (see sub-section titled "Anthroposophy in Brief/Reincarnation and Karma").

• Steiner also claimed that there were two different Jesus children involved in the Incarnation of the Christ: one child descended from Solomon, as described in the Gospel of Matthew, the other child from Nathan, as described in the Gospel of Luke. (The genealogies given in the two gospels diverge some thirty generations before Jesus' birth, and 'Jesus' was a common name in biblical times.) In Steiner's descriptions, the divine "Christ Spirit", the Son-God of the Trinity, incarnated in the Nathan Jesus at the moment of the baptism by John; up until the moment of the baptism by John in the Jordan, the Nathan Jesus was a very great holy man, but not yet the divine Son of God.

• His view of the second coming of Christ is also unusual; he suggested that this would not [16] be a physical reappearance, but meant the Christ being would become manifest in non-physical form, in the "etheric realm" — i.e. visible to spiritual vision and apparent in community life and — for increasing numbers of people beginning around the year 1933.

• He emphasized that the future would require humanity to recognize this Spirit of Love in all its genuine forms, regardless of how this is named. He also warned that the traditional name, "Christ", might be used yet the true essence of this being of love ignored.

The Christian Community

Towards the end of Steiner's life, a group of theology students (Lutheran as well as Catholic) approached Steiner for help in reviving Christianity. They approached a notable Lutheran pastor, Friedrich Rittelmeyer already working with Steiner's insights to join their efforts. Out of their cooperative endeavor, the Movement for Religious Renewal, now generally known as The Christian Community, was born. Steiner emphasized that this help was given independently of his anthroposophical work, as he saw anthroposophy as independent of any particular religion or religious denomination.

Reception of Anthroposophy

Notable supporters

Anthroposophy has had many prominent supporters outside of the movement. Among these have been many writers, artists and musicians; these include Nobel Laureate Saul Bellow, Andrej Belyj, Josef Beuys, Wassily Kandinsky, Swedish Nobel Laureate Selma Lagerlöf, Nobel Laureate Albert Schweitzer, Andrei Tarkovsky and Bruno Walter.

Religious nature

There have been criticisms that any spiritual movement, anthroposophy in particular, is necessarily religious in nature.

Related to this are criticisms that anthroposophy is a sect or cult. In 2000, a court case was brought in France against a government minister for making this claim publicly; the court ruled that the minister's comments were defamatory. In 2005, a California federal court ruled that anthroposophy was not a religion for Establishment Clause purposes; the case is under appeal.

Scientific basis

Anthroposophy's claim to a scientific basis has been disputed on the basis that Steiner's ideas:

• are not empirically derived
• are not reproducible, or even testable by anyone
• have not changed significantly since they were introduced
• rely on unverifiable, "paranormal statements"

Though Rudolf Steiner studied natural science at the Vienna Technical University at the undergraduate level, his doctorate was in philosophy and very little of his work is directly concerned with the traditional realm of science, the natural world. His primary interest was in applying the methodology of science to realms of inner experience and the spiritual worlds:

"[Anthroposophy's] methodology is to employ a scientific way of thinking, but to apply this methodology, which normally excludes our inner experience from consideration, instead to the human being proper."

The application of scientific methodology to other areas has a rich tradition in Germanic philosophy and culture. Steiner did not call his work natural science (Naturwissenschaft), but Geisteswissenschaft. The term Geisteswissenschaft is generally used to refer to the humanities or "human sciences" — and includes fields such as philosophy, history, and literature; in Steiner's day, psychology and sociology were also included. Steiner thus identified his own work with fields such as history and philosophy rather than with the natural sciences.

Steiner saw that the results of his spiritual vision were difficult or impossible for others to reproduce through his methodology. He suggested "open-mindedly" exploring and testing the results of his research as an alternative; he also urged others to follow a spiritual training that would allow them to directly apply the methods he used. His claim to have created a science of soul and spiritual phenomena, however, depends upon the reproducibility of his research methods themselves, and the degree to which this has been achieved has been questioned.

Some results of Steiner's research, however, have been investigated and supported by scientists working to further and extend scientific observation in directions Steiner pointed out.

Racism

Steiner wrote:

"Qualities which have to be combated...[include] prejudice...and the making of distinctions in human beings according to the outward characteristics of rank, sex, race, and so forth....Especially can misunderstanding arise if we believe that we must become foolhardy in order to be fearless; that we must close our eyes to the differences between people, because we must combat the prejudices of rank, race, and so forth. Rather is it true that a correct estimate of all things is to be attained only when we are no longer entangled in prejudice. Even in the ordinary sense it is true that the fear of some phenomenon prevents us from estimating it rightly; that a racial prejudice prevents us from seeing into a man's soul."

In his lectures,however, he joined other Germans in denouncing the importation of blacks to France as “terrible” and “brutal” and decried the effects of the mixing of “blood and race.” He warned that if white women should read “negro novels” during pregnancy, the result would be mulatto offspring. In 1922 in reference to the housing of black soldiers in France, he declared, “The negro race does not belong in Europe, and it is of course nothing but a disgrace that this race is now playing such a large role in Europe.”

Concerns have been raised that latent racism in anthroposophy persists today due to the unreserved adherence to the teachings of Rudolf Steiner among some followers of anthroposophy:

"Given the origin of Waldorf in early-20th-century Germany and its present in a class-biased and color-racist America, Waldorf educators need to work incessantly to clean their approach of unsuspected biases. For instance, with regard to race, a naive version of the evolution of consciousness, a theory foundational to both Steiner's anthroposophy and Waldorf education, sometimes places one race below another in one or another dimension of development."

The Anthroposophical Society in America refutes this claim:

We explicitly reject any racial theory that may be construed to be part of Rudolf Steiner's writings. The Anthroposophical Society in America is an open, public society and it rejects any purported spiritual or scientific theory on the basis of which the alleged superiority of one race is justified at the expense of another race.

Bibliography

• Ahern, G. (1984): Sun at Midnight: the Rudolf Steiner movement and the Western esoteric tradition. Wellingborough: Aquarian Press
• Archiati, Pietro, The Great Religions: Pathways to our Innermost Being, ISBN 1-902636-01-5
• Archiati, Pietro, Reincarnation in Modern Life: Toward a New Christian Awareness. Temple Lodge. ISBN 0-904693-88-0
• Barnes, Henry, A Life for the Spirit: Rudolf Steiner in the Crosscurrents of Our Time, Steiner Books, 1997.
• Davy, John, Hope, Evolution and Change, Hawthorn Press. ISBN 0-9507062-7-2
• Edelglass, S. et al., The Marriage of Sense and Thought, Lindisfarne Books. ISBN 0-940262-82-7
• Forward, William and Blaxland-de Lange, Simon (eds.), Trumpet to the Morn (Golden Blade 2001), ISBN 0-9531600-3-3
• Forward, William and Blaxland-de Lange, Simon (eds.), Working with Destiny II (Golden Blade 1998), ISBN 0-9531600-0-9
• Gleich, Sigismund, The Sources of Inspiration of Anthroposophy, ISBN 0-904693-87-2
• Goebel, Wolfgang and Glöckler, Michaela, A Guide to Child Health. Floris Books. ISBN 0-86315-390-9
• Gulbekian, Sevak (ed.), The Future is Now: Anthroposophy at the New Millennium, ISBN 1-902636-09-0
• Hauschka, Rudolf, At the Dawn of a New Age, ISBN 0-919924-25-5
• Hindes, James H. (1995) Renewing Christianity. Edinburgh: Floris Books
• Klocek, Dennis, The Seer's Handbook: A Guide to Higher Perception, Steinerbooks 2006. ISBN 0-88010-548-8
• König, Karl, The Human Soul, ISBN 0-86315-042-X
• Kühlewind, Georg, The Logos-Structure of the World: Language as a Model of Reality, ISBN 0-940262-48-7
• Lievegoed, Bernard, The Battle for the Soul: The Working Together of Three Great Leaders of Humanity, ISBN 1-869890-64-7
• Lievegoed, Bernard, Man on the Threshold. Hawthorn Press. ISBN 0-9507062-6-4
• McDermott, Robert A., The Essential Steiner: Basic Writings of Rudolf Steiner, Harper, 1984.
• Murphy, Christine (ed.), Iscador: Mistletoe and Cancer Therapy. Lantern Books, 2005. ISBN 1-930051-76-X
• Nesfield-Cookson, B., Michael and the Two-Horned Beast: The Challenge of Evil Today in the Light of Rudolf Steiner's Science of the Spirit, ISBN 0-904693-98-8
• Nesfield-Cookson, B., Rudolf Steiner's Vision of Love: spiritual science and the logic of the heart. Bristol: Rudolf Steiner Press
• Paddock, F. and M. Spiegler, Ed.(2003) Judaism and Anthroposophy. Great Barrington, MA: SteinerBooks
• Pietzner, Carlo, Transforming Earth, Transforming Self, ISBN 0-88010-428-7
• Prokofieff, Sergei, The East in the Light of the West, ISBN 0-904693-57-0
• Prokofieff, Sergei, The Occult Significance of Forgiveness. Temple Lodge Publishing. ISBN 0-904693-71-6.
• Schaefer, Christopher and Voors, Tyno, Vision in Action. Lindisfarne Books. ISBN 0-940262-74-6
• Schwenk, Sensitive Chaos. Rudolf Steiner Press. ISBN 1-85584-055-3
• Shepherd, A. P. 1885-1968 :The Battle for The Spirit: The Church and Rudolf Steiner; an anthology compiled by and with an introduction by David Clement. Stourbridge: Anastasi
• Shepherd, A. P., 1885-1968 : A Scientist of the Invisible: An introduction to the life and work of Rudolf Steiner. Edinburgh: Floris, 1983.
• Soesman, Albert (1990). The Twelve Senses: An Introduction to Anthroposophy Based on Rudolf Steiners Studies of The Senses. Translation by Jakob M. Cornelis. Stroud: Hawthorn
• Steiner, Marie, Esoteric Studies, ISBN 0-904693-58-9
• Steiner, Rudolf, 1861-1925.
  • Intuitive Thinking As a Spiritual Path: A Philosophy of Freedom; Steiner Books, 1893/1995. ISBN 0-88010-385-X
  • Christianity as Mystical Fact"; trans. by Andrew Welburn. Hudson, N.Y. : Anthroposophic Press, 1902/c1997.
  • Theosophy: An Introduction to the Spiritual Processes in Human Life and in the Cosmos, Rudolf Steiner Press, 1904/2005. ISBN 1-85584-131-2
  • Cosmic Memory, Steiner Books, 1990.
  • How to Know Higher Worlds: a modern path of initiation ; trans. by Christopher Bamford. Hudson, N.Y. : Anthroposophic Press, 1904/c1994.ISBN 0-88010-508-9
  • An Outline of Esoteric Science; trans. by Catherine E. Creeger. Hudson, NY: Anthroposophic Press, 1910/c1997.
  • Verses and Meditations. Rudolf Steiner Press, 2005. [ISBN 1-85584-197-5]
  • Esoteric Development: selected lectures and writings. (Rev. ed.) Great Barrington, MA: SteinerBooks, c2003.
  • A Western Approach to Reincarnation and Karma: selected lectures and writings ; ed. and intr. by René Querido. Hudson, NY: Anthroposophic Press, c1997.
  • According to Matthew: the gospel of Christ's humanity: lectures by Rudolf Steiner; trans. by C. E. Creeger; intr. by R. Smoley. Great Barrington, MA: Anthroposophic Press, c2003.
  • Evil: selected lectures by Rudolf Steiner ; all lectures trans. or rev. by Matthew Barton; [comp. and ed. by Michael Kalisch]. London: R. Steiner, 1997.
  • Founding a Science of The Spirit: fourteen lectures given in Stuttgart between 22 August and 4 September 1906 [New ed.]; trans. revised by Matthew Barton. London: Rudolf Steiner Press, 1999.
  • Towards Social Renewal: rethinking the basis of society [4th ed]; trans. by Matthew Barton. London: Rudolf Steiner Press, 1999.
  • The Gospel of St. John and its Relation to the other Gospels (GA112), available online.
  • The Apocalypse of St. John, Kessinger Publishing, 2005.
• Steiner, Rudolf and Welburn, Andrew, The Mysteries: Rudolf Steiner's Writings on Spiritual Initation, ISBN 0-86315-243-0
• Suchantke, Andreas, Eco-Geography. Lindisfarne Press. ISBN 0-940262-99-1.
• Swassjan, Karen, The Ultimate Communion of Mankind: A Celebration of Rudolf Steiner's Book "The Philosophy of Freedom", ISBN 0-904693-82-1
• Treichler, Rudolf, Soulways. Hawthorn Press. ISBN 1-869890-13-2
• Verhulst, Jos, Developmental Dynamics in Humans and Other Primates. Adonis Press, 2005. ISBN 0-932776-29-9
• Warren, Edward, Freedom as Spiritual Activity, ISBN 0-904693-60-0
• Welburn, Andrew J. (2004) Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy and the Crisis of Contemporary Thought. Edinburgh: Floris.
• Wilkes, John, Flowforms: The Rhythmic Power of Water. Floris Books. ISBN 0-86315-392-5

External links

Anthroposophical Societies

• World-wide Anthroposophic Society (Goetheanum)
• Anthroposophical Society in America
• Anthroposophical Society in Great Britain
• Anthroposophical Society in Bulgaria
• Anthroposophical Initiatives in India
• Sociedade Antroposófica no Brasil

Book and Web-links

• Rudolf Steiner Archive (online works, see especially the Books section)
• Steiner Books and Anthroposophic Press (USA)
• Hawthorn Press (GB)
• The Anthroposophy Network
• Anthros.net - Anthroposophic webguide in three leading languages
• Anthroposophical links in Great Britain
• anthromedia.net - Anthroposophy Internet Portal
• Anthroposophy in Words and Images (English and Swedish)
• Philosophy of Freedom website

Relevant articles

• Article: Rudolf Steiner introduced by Owen Barfield.
• Study by the National Cancer Institute on mistletoe's use for treating cancer " The use of mistletoe as a treatment for cancer has been investigated in more than 30 clinical studies. Reports of improved survival and/or quality of life have been common, but nearly all of the studies had major weaknesses that raise doubts about the reliability of the findings."
• McDermott, "Racism and Waldorf Education"