Henry de Heaulme

Marie Joseph Aimé Albert Jean Baptiste Henri "Henry" de Heaulme (born June 23, 1899 in La Reunion ; † November 29, 1986 in the Dordogne ) was a French colonist ("Colon"), plantation owner, entrepreneur and politician in Madagascar .

family

The de Heaulme family goes back to Françoise Châtelain, who came to Réunion in 1674 as one of 15 "daughters of the king" Louis XIV at the age of 16 from the Paris Hôpital de la Salpêtrière via Fort Dauphin (now Tolagnaro ) . Françoise was married to an ensign in the Navy in a mass wedding on August 27, 1674 . The women of the Antanosy, an ethnic group in Madagascar who had previously lived with the men of the colony, were beside themselves. There was a massacre. 75 French were killed, 63 escaped. Françoise also survived, lost her husband, fled to La Réunion and, after surviving two other husbands, married Augustin Panon there. The Panon family subsequently rose to become the largest family dynasty in La Réunion. Françoise Châtelain Panon, who died in 1730, became the ancestral mother of the island aristocracy , to which the de Heaulmes also belong.

Jean Roland Boutsocq de Heaulme (* 1705; † 1773) emigrated to La Réunion in 1729. In 1732 he became an officer of the Grande Compagnie des Indes Orientales created by Louis XIV as an alternative to the British East India Company . Soon he owned sugar cane - plantations that of slaves were operated from Madagascar and occupy a large part of the island. The family seat "La Basse-Terre" was expanded into a stately palace. The de Heaulmes were later overtaken by even higher-born settlers, such as the Panon Desbassayns, the de Villèle, the de Villentroy, the de Châteauvieux and the de Dieuleveult, who emigrated to La Réunion to avoid the guillotine of the French Revolution .

When France conquered Madagascar in 1895 and relegated it to a colony , the Merina , who had ruled the island from the highlands around Antananarivo , resisted the invasion. The new Governor General General Joseph Gallieni had the Queen Ranavalona III. brutally suppress the cited resistance. He sent the queen into exile in Reunion Island. There she was housed in a town house by Madame de Villentroy, the grandmother of Henry de Heaulmes, until the French government finally interned her in Algeria , where she died in 1917.

life and career

Henry de Heaulme was the eighth generation of the sons of the plantation owner Narcisse de Heaulme (1856-1945) and Marie Bellier de Villentroy (1866-1962) from Le Chaudron on Reunion Island. He took part in the First World War with four brothers on the side of France . When her five brothers returned safely from the First World War, Marthe de Heaulme (* 1902, † 1994) entered the Order of the Sisters of Mercy as a Soeur Gabrielle in Fort Dauphin according to a vow . As the “little sister of the poor”, she founded a social station in Amboasary, near Berenty, and two other communities in southern Madagascar. Their work, especially during the great famines of 1942–1943 and 1947–1949, will not be forgotten by the needy in the Malagasy population.

After the end of the war, Henry and his younger brother Alain de Heaulme stopped in the port of Tamatave and visited the capital Tananarive from there. According to family tradition, the eldest brother had taken over the lands in La Réunion (probably Roland de Heaulme (1889–1974)). The brothers bought a plantation near Tananarive. Alain survived a plague there, and when Henry and Alain fell ill with jaundice three times in a row , they left the high plateau on the advice of the doctors, gave up the plantation and hired themselves out to their uncle Pierre Bellier de Villentroy in the drier and healthier south of the island. At the end of 1926, Henry married the daughter of the mica magnate Marcelle Bellier de Villentroy. In May 1928 he drove with his heavily pregnant wife in a Harley-Davidson with a sidecar from Tananarive to Fort Dauphin.

Alain became operations manager and demolition manager in the mica and graphite mines in Ambihy, near Tsivory. He later worked as the manager of his brother's sisal plantation in Berenty. Henry took over the shipping and export of the mica, also known as Mica . For the transport, Henry ordered a Chevrolet truck, the first of its kind in southern Madagascar, from Alatari & Pitts, his uncle's business partner in New York.

When Huguette de Heaulme (* 1929) was baptized in 1932, he sent the savings as a dowry for his daughter to Fort Dauphin.

Foundation of the sisal company

In Fort Dauphin, Marcelle Bellier de Villentroy made the house of the growing family the social center of the French colony and Henry planned to start his own sisal business. French settlers exported the first 42 tons of the Mexican agave sisal to France in 1922 . By the beginning of the Second World War , production had risen to 2,500 tons, 880 tons of which came from the region around Fort Dauphin.

In search of suitable wood for the transport boxes, he crossed the Mandrare River near Berenty in 1936. Together with his brother Alain, he acquired forests and lands from the Antandroy Mahafaha in Ankoba. Henry became the blood brother of the Antandroy king Tsiongakarivo. No price was charged for the land, which the locals believe is inalienable and only left in trust by the forefathers. However, the de Heaulme brothers asked Zebu cattle to seal the treaty. The colonial administration underpinned the claim of the new settlers by granting generous land concessions.

With the Confolent, Gallois and François and Aymar de Guitaut, other “Colons” from France settled in the Mandrare valley. There are indications that the de Heaulmes also benefited from the SMOTIG forced labor service set up for young Madagascans under Governor Marcel Olivier in 1926 when they cleared the land. The brothers planted sisal, built processing plants and procured a German steam engine with a flywheel (built in 1928) and a chainsaw . For the workers and families they built huts, a school and an infirmary in Berenty, which was later run by Henry's daughter Chantal.

Henry de Heaulme had 6,000 hectares of forest to the 100 hectares gallery forest include the Mandrare, a nature reserve for living there lemurs , set up, especially for white sifaka and distinctive because of its curled tail Katta .

Alain took on the role of the plantation supervisor, Henry took care of the shipping and export of the sisal. In the beginning, the journey to the port in Fort Dauphin on two-wheeled ox carts took two days. Later a truck took over the delivery.

During the Madagascan freedom struggle, which lasted from 1947 to 1949, Henry de Heaulme, together with Captain Martin and other settlers, prevented the execution of 117 insurgents by a police court in Fort Dauphin. He also successfully campaigned for the replacement of Police Commissioner Gervais, who was responsible for torturing prisoners.

post war period

The high prices paid by France for sisal from Madagascar in the late 1940s and the Marshall Plan , which helped Europe get back on its feet, also boosted sisal production in Madagascar. Berenty produced only 20 tons in 1949, but already 600 tons in 1964. Henry de Heaulme also received a grant from the Marshall Plan in 1950. He procured tractors and a forest clearing machine. Its own power supply drove generators, conveyor belts, and squeezing and fiber brushing machines. When nylon was invented in 1953 and world market prices for sisal plummeted, the French fund “L'Encouragement Textil” subsidized every ton of sisal exported with 10,000 CFA francs . The 1950s and 1960s became the golden years of sisal. Nylon failed to drive sisal out of the market because it was better suited than nylon for some uses.

Political career in Madagascar

When Charles de Gaulle returned to power in 1958 with the mandate to finally dissolve the French colonial empire, Madagascar's path to independence began. Henry de Heaulme was initially elected by the Malagasy people as their provincial representative, took over the chairmanship of the provincial assembly and became vice-president of the constituent national assembly. As one of the founding fathers, he signed the Basic Law of the new Republic of Madagascar in October 1958 together with the politicians Laurent Botokeky, Monja Jaona and the future President Tsiranana .

The leading figures of independence, such as Joseph Ravoahangy, Joseph Raseta and Jacques Rabemananjara , studied in France. They belong to the nobility of the Merina tribe, who settled in the highlands around Tananarive. The Merina kingdom had already massively oppressed the island's coastal inhabitants ("Côtiers") even before the French invaded. For many “Côtiers”, therefore, a Malagasy leadership under French influence, which ensured political sympathy and economic stability, was the better alternative. The tug of war between the Merina nobility, the “Côtiers” and the “Colons” (colonists) cleared the way for the “Côtier” Philibert Tsiranana, who was trained in France. Its moderate policy of smooth transition was confirmed in a referendum on September 28, 1958 and resulted in the young country's participation in the Communauté française. The community provided that in the areas of foreign policy, trade, customs, military and education, the French supremacy would initially be retained. On June 26, 1960, Madagascar formally declared its independence. President Tsiranana, who was friendly to the settlers, honored Henry de Heaulme with the National Order of Madagascar for his services.

In July 1964, the German ambassador to Madagascar, Willi Georg Steffen, visited Berenty National Park at the invitation of de Heaulmes. He was the first German. who was invited after the Second World War.

Company transfer

In the 1960s, Henry de Heaulme began transferring the business to his eldest son, Jean. After completing his baccalaureate at the Lycée Saint-Michel in Tananarive, he went to France to do his military service in 1946, where his father requested an apprenticeship as a mechanic at the Pont du Sud company in Toulon.

On April 14, 1947, he began his military service with the 19th Artillery Regiment. In 1947, his regiment in Piedmont secured the cession of La Brigue and Tende from Italy to France under the Paris Treaty . On his days off, he learns to fly from the electrical engineer Bernard Astraud , whom he met during his apprenticeship at Pont du Sud. Later Jean served with the French occupation forces on Lake Constance and in the Black Forest. In the summer of 1947 he had special leave to lead the Malagasy delegation at the international scout meeting near Paris.

There he met his cousins ​​Jean, Alain and Richard de Heaulme de Boutsocq, whose father had left La Réunion to make his fortune in Indochina. Cousin Jean becomes a professional soldier.

The Malagasy uprising

Jean was dismissed as Sergeant Major and returned to Madagascar on March 20, 1949 on the orders of his father. In the meantime, France had sent the Foreign Legion to Madagascar to suppress the Madagascar's struggle for freedom against the colonial rule of France. Jean was immediately conscripted after his return and took over command of a unit of the Legion, which consisted mainly of German mercenaries and had the task of hunting rebels and securing transports on the east coast. In 1950 the uprising was bloodily suppressed. Estimates speak of 70,000 dead.

Jean returned to civilian life and took over the management of the mica mine in Betanimena on behalf of his father. The mine is a seven-hour drive from Berenty and can only be reached by 4x4. There was no electricity. Everything was done by hand. Jean lived in a mud hut. After three years he returned to Berenty to help further expand sisal production.

When the de Heaulmes, together with the de Guitauts and the Confolant, set up a sisal spinning factory in Fort Dauphin in the same year, Jean persuaded his friend and flight instructor from Cuers, Bernard Astraud, to take over the post of electrical engineer. Astraud, obsessed with flying, founded a pilot school in Behara. But there was no aircraft in Madagascar for the newly trained pilots. When Astraud heard that the Rhodesian Air Force was about to sell twenty-four single-engine de Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk two-seaters, he struck. In October 1953 he transferred together with Jean and Jacques Lalut (* 1923), the fiancé of Jean's sister Huguette, on a flight of history, first nine and in two more flights the remaining Chipmunk from Bulawayo in Rhodesia via Lumbo and Juan de Nova on the road from Mozambique to Fort Dauphin. There was a tragic accident on the last flight. Bernhard de Guiteaut and his wife Aleth fell in the fog in the mountains of Rhodesia.

Jean de Heaulme was looking for more challenges. He mastered the legendary route from Cape Town to Cairo in a Land Rover. Then he bought a twin-engine Beechcraft Baron D55, which he received in Wichita (Kansas) and brought with Jacques Lalut and his father over the Azores, Kampala and Dar-es-Salaam to Fort Dauphin. In the spring of 1954, Colonel Arthur Loumange was transferred from Indochina to Fort Dauphin, where he took command of the French garrison . His family included their 18-year-old daughter Aline, whom Jean fell in love with, but who needed five years to break his father's resistance to his son's marriage to a non-aristocrat.

Revolts against French rule

The Colons were facing difficult times eleven years after independence. An anthrax epidemic broke out among the herds of cattle in southern Madagascar in 1971 , and the government's tax collectors enraged the residents. The Antandroy rise up under the charismatic Monja Jaona , son of a pastor, one of the architects of independence and leader of the Mouvement National pour l'Indépendence de Madagascar (MONIMA). They demand independence from the Merina of the high plateau. The chic gendarmes, led by Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava, a Saint-Cyr graduate . A massacre kills a thousand in Ampanihy . The Antandroy revolt is over. But already in the following year young people and students in the capital protest against the French-oriented regime of the aging President Tsiranana (ten years after independence, the French baccalaureate is still in force at the secondary schools, at the university "Charles de Gaulle" is the curriculum, Language and professors French).

A thousand French advisors still hold key positions in the government. Replacement for the helpers from France comes only from the ranks of Merina and Betsileo . Coastal tribal candidates have no chance. There are dead and injured. Tananarive town hall is burned down. Colonel Ratsimandrava, chief of the gendarmerie, sympathizes with the students. He refuses to allow his police officers to shoot unarmed protesters. After a year of unrest, the Tsiranana government fell in October 1972.

The military dictatorship

As a result, there was a military dictatorship under General Gabriel Ramanantsoa . Colonel Ratsimandrava became Minister of the Interior and enjoyed increasing popularity, especially among the rural population, thanks to his grassroots democratic policy of the "Fokon'olona", which was oriented towards the traditional village assembly.

In January 1975 de Cyclone Débora devastated the south of the island. The houses of Berenty and large parts of the sisal plantations on Mandrare were destroyed. Reconstruction will begin immediately, but it will be difficult. The country also got into political turmoil again. General Ramanantsoa resigned and the newly elected President Ratsimandrava was assassinated six days later, on February 11, 1975. The attack brought the country to the brink of civil war. After a transitional government under General Gilles Andriamahazo , the former Foreign Minister Didier Ratsiraka took power on June 15, 1975 and ruled the country autocratically until 1991.

On December 30, 1975, the socialist-oriented Democratic Republic of Madagascar is proclaimed. Ratsiraka nationalizes large parts of the economy and breaks off all relations with France. This policy accelerates the decline of the Malagasy economy. The neighbors of the de Heaulme family on Mandrare, the de Guitaut family, owners of vineyards and forests around the Château de l'Epoisses in Burgundy, leave their sisal plantations to the state overseers of the Merina and return to France. Henry de Heaulme, now 76 years old, is also leaving the island. Like his brother Alain and the Duprays, he retired in the Dordogne. Jean de Heaulme stays in Berenty. The socialization of the economy leads to supply bottlenecks. There is a lack of rice, cooking oil, candles and fuel and protests keep coming back. In Mahajanga there in December 1976, violent confrontations between Madagascar and Komorern. In May 1978 student demonstrations in Tananarive are bloodily suppressed. There are three dead. The island was hit by a wave of xenophobia in 1978. Many Indian, Chinese and Greek merchants and traders are expelled. Revolts are also flaring up in the south, which has again been plagued by a drought.

In October 1978 a Swiss accountant from de Heaulmes fired a signal rocket into the night sky of Fort Dauphin. Leftovers land on the market square and frighten the residents. The military intervenes. The Swiss has a license for eight missiles, but has given two of them to Jean de Heaulme. His office is searched. In addition to the two distress signals, there are three pistols and although he has a gun license, he is arrested on charges of overthrowing and espionage . Jean, unsettled by the imprisonment, leaves the sons Henry jr. (* 1960) and Philippe (* 1962) as well as their daughter Claire (* 1967) together with their grandfather Henry to safety in France. Henry de Heaulme, who was named one of the founding fathers of Madagascar's independence by President Tsiranana, is a broken man. In 1984 he visits Berenty again. On the return journey he was accompanied by the eighty-two year old Marthe de Heaulme. Henry de Heaulme falls seriously ill. Until his death two years later he will not leave the house in the Dordogne.

Jean's eldest daughter Bénédicte (* 1957), who is about to graduate from the American Lutheran School in Fort Dauphin, stays behind to assist the imprisoned father and mother Aline. Aline de Heaulme is the French Honorary Consul in Fort Dauphin. The French embassy therefore urges her to officially stand up for her husband. He would then be flown out to France immediately. A delegation of Berenty plantation workers appears at the Fort Dauphin police station and tries to get their release. The workers even threaten to revolt. Jean de Heaulme refuses. After five months, he was released from prison in February 1979.

The government gives in and invites him, the colonist, to the capital on June 26, 1979, to take part in the official celebrations for the national holiday. A month later he was called before President Ratsiraka. He is very direct and is amazed that the Malagasy people so love and adore Jean de Heaulme, a Frenchman, a complete example of a colonialist. The Antandroy in the south are also against him. Jean de Heaulme supported their leader Monja Jaona. Why? Jean points out that his father stood up for independence with Monja Jaona, Laurent Botokeky, André Resampa and Tsiranana. These are his friends too, and they always will be. The second point was about the economy in the south, which was in ruins. In order to save the jobs on the sisal plantations on Mandrare, which have since been nationalized, Ratsiraka finally offers a 50 percent stake and sends Jean de Heaulme to negotiations with the former owners in France. His wife Aline and daughter Bénédicte have to stay in Madagascar. Your passports will be confiscated. The Confolent and Gallois families agree to the proposal, two others sell in a lightning transfer to the Swede Bertil Akesson. The offers the Malagasy government with reference to the socialist government in Sweden cooperation. Jean temporarily takes over the management of the plantations of Sweden. Despite the poor supply situation, he manages to bring the run-down sisal plantations back into shape. It helps that the Soviet Union, allied with the Ratsiraka regime, buys sisal at top prices, but pays it in non-convertible Malagasy francs. Two years later, the government offers to reduce the state share to thirty percent. The increasing sisal production succeeds in politically stabilizing the south.

The measures do not help Madagascar itself. Five years after taking power, Ratsiraka has ruined the country. The gross national product is stagnating, investments are not taking place, flight funds are being shifted abroad, the black market for foreign currency, rice, toothpaste and soap is flourishing. The transport monopoly causes the supply of cities to collapse. The per capita income falls by 30%. In view of the state-imposed - low - prices, farmers are withdrawing from the markets. Ratsiraka tries in vain to curb the impoverishment of the population through growing foreign debt. In February 1981 there are five deaths in riots in Tananarive. The country is bankrupt. The government calls on the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank to help. They prescribe a drastic austerity course. Nevertheless, Ratsiraka, some experts speak of massive forgeries, will be re-elected. From 1982 onwards, Madagascar developed into the World Bank's 'model student' despite serious internal conflicts.

The tourism saves Berenty. In 1974 Jean de Heaulme had the idea of ​​turning the sisal plantation and the lemur reservation into a tourist attraction. He is now having the buildings rebuilt and a hotel built. The first guests arrive in 1980. From 1983 groups from the American organization Earthwatch, which gives a limited number of well-paying lay people the opportunity to take part in scientific expeditions, also visit Berenty.

Claire de Heaulme and her brother Philippe completed their training in France in 1984 and returned to Berenty by land via Gibraltar , Morocco , Algeria , Chad , Central African Republic , through Zaire , where they were attacked by bandits, via Kenya . There they help their mother with the further expansion of the tourist hotel. Didier Foulon, who accompanied her on the trip through Africa, wants to stay, finds work in Fort Dauphin and marries Claire. In 1985 the family was awarded the J. Paul Getty Prize for Nature Conservation for their efforts to preserve the flora and fauna in southern Madagascar.

Jean de Heaulme was also rehabilitated by President Ratsiraka in 1989. He was awarded the National Order of Madagascar by the same president who had him jailed in 1978, the same order that his father Henry received from President Tsiranana in 1960.

Berenty also survived the great drought and famine of 1991-1992, as a result of which President Reziraka was voted out. Although he succeeded in returning to power in 1996, he was forced to go into exile in France in 2002 under pressure from the USA . Meanwhile, at the beginning of the new millennium, the world market price for sisal is picking up again, but tourism in Madagascar has almost completely come to a standstill. In 2003, the seventy-five year old Jean de Heaulme finally handed over the business to his forty-five year old son Philippe. Henry jr. finishes his studies at one of the grandes écoles as an electrical engineer and finds, accompanied by his wife Pascale, employment in the free trade zone of Tananarive.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Henry de Heaulme, http://gw2.geneanet.org/lesmascareignes?lang=fr;p=marie+joseph+aime+albert+jean+baptiste+henri;n=de+heaulme
2. ↑ Daughters of the King, cf. u. a. http://www.travelworldonline.de/fillesduroi.html
3. ^ Antanosy, en: Antanosy people
4. ↑ cf. P. 43 ff. "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
5. ↑ Jean Roland Boutsocq de Heaulme, http://gw5.geneanet.org/samlap?lang=de;p=gaspard+victor;n=boutsocq+de+heaulme
6. ↑ Jean-Baptiste de Villèle
7. ↑ Marianne Bellier de Villentroy, http://gw5.geneanet.org/samlap?lang=de;p=marianne;n=bellier+de+villentroy
8. ↑ Joseph Sosthène d'Armand de Chateauvieux http://www.lexpress.fr/region/l-icirc-le-m-eacute-tisse_489961.html
9. ↑ De Dieuleveult, "Archives de l'Île lointaine: la Réunion, autrefois Bourbon: études et documents sur la famille Panon Desbassayns et certaines de ses branches", by Alain de Dieuleveult, 1995
10. ↑ cf. Joseph Louise Thérèse Marie de Villèle, http://gw2.geneanet.org/lesmascareignes?lang=fr;p=charlotte+marie+genevieve+antonie;n=mezieres+de+lepervanche
11. ↑ [Narcisse de Heaulme, http://gw5.geneanet.org/samlap?lang=en;p=narcisse;n=boutsocq+de+heaulme ]
12. ↑ [Marie Bellier de Villentroy, http://gw5.geneanet.org/samlap?lang=de;p=marie+elisabeth;n=bellier+de+villentroy ]
13. ↑ cf. P. 50 ff. "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
14. ↑ cf. Marie Joseph Frédéric Alain de Heaulme http://gw2.geneanet.org/lesmascareignes?lang=de;p=marie+joseph+frederic+alain;n=de+heaulme
15. ↑ cf. Pierre Bellier de Villentroy, http://gw4.geneanet.org/pierfit?lang=en;p=pierre;n=bellier+de+villentroy
16. ↑ cf. Marcelle Bellier de Villentroy, http://gw4.geneanet.org/pierfit?lang=en;p=marcelle;n=bellier+de+villentroy
17. ↑ cf. P. 70 ff. "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
18. ↑ cf. P. 364, "The Malagasy Republic, Madagascar Today," Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, Stanford Press, 1965
19. ↑ cf. P. 40 "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
20. ↑ On the land concessions cf. P. 332, "The Malagasy Republic, Madagascar Today," Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, Stanford Press, 1965
21. ↑ cf. “Service de la Main d'Oeuvre des Travaux d'Intérêt Général”, http://www.contreculture.org/AL%20Abolition%20du%20travail%20forc%E9.html
22. ↑ cf. P. 65, “The Malagasy Republic, Madagascar Today,” Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, Stanford Press, 1965
23. ↑ cf. Pp. 12, 67-68 "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004 and Berenty National Park, http://travography.com/lemurs/berenty.html
24. ↑ cf. Pp. 119 ff "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
25. ↑ cf. P. 131 "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
26. ↑ cf. 132, “The Malagasy Republic, Madagascar Today,” Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, Stanford Press, 1965
27. ↑ cf. P. 365 “The Malagasy Republic, Madagascar Today”. Stanford Press, 1965.
28. ↑ cf. P. 150 "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
29. ↑ Joseph Ravoahangy, http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/biographies/IVRepublique/ravoahangy-joseph-28101893.asp
30. ↑ cf. Joseph Raseta, http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/biographies/IVRepublique/raseta-joseph-09121886.asp
31. ↑ On the referendum in Madagascar, cf. http://french.peopledaily.com.cn/96852/7216532.html
32. ↑ cf. Referendum on the question of independence, on membership in the “Communaute Francaise”, http://www.preussische-allgemeine.de/nachrichten/artikel/putschversuch-gegen-die-dekolonisation.html
33. ↑ cf. Pp. 150ff and 176ff "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
34. ↑ cf. Collège St. Michel, http://blasonmada.canalblog.com/archives/2006/09/27/2774260.html
35. ↑ cf. The Jamboree, archived copy ( Memento of the original from August 21, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
36. ↑ On military service cf. P. 110 ff. "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
37. ↑ cf. P. 117 "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
38. ↑ cf. P. 129 ff. "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
39. ↑ cf. P. 140 ff. "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
40. ↑ cf. P. 143 ff. "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
41. ↑ cf. P. 148 "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
42. ↑ cf. Universitè Charles de Gaulle Tananarive, http://mundusacp.up.pt/documents/institutions/presentations/UA.pdf
43. ↑ On the storming of the town hall cf. http://www.mada.pro/madagascar_13_mai.html
44. ↑ cf. Le Fokon'olona (commune malgache) et les Conventions de Fokon'olona "by Pierre Delteil, Paris, Éditions Domat-Montchrestien, F. Loviton et Cie, 1931
45. ↑ cf. P. 176 ff. “Lord & Lemurs” by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
46. ↑ cf. P. 29 “Lord & Lemurs” by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
47. ↑ cf. Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar, http://www.verfassungen.net/mg/
48. ↑ cf. P. 184 "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
49. ↑ cf. P. 220 "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
50. ↑ cf. Madagascar: Socialist experiments (1972–1979) http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/madoverview5.htm
51. ↑ cf. on the captivity and release of Jean de Heaulme pp. 183 ff, “Lord & Lemurs” by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
52. ↑ See Carl Gustaf Bertil Akesson, Archived Copy ( Memento of the original from April 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
53. ↑ cf. also “Monographie de la Région d'Anosy”, Madagascar, Ministère de la Agriculture, de l'Elévage et de la Peche, 2003, archived copy ( memento of the original from July 22, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link became automatic used and not yet tested. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
54. ↑ cf. Encyclopedia of the Nations: Madagascar - Balance of payments, http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Madagascar-BALANCE-OF-PAYMENTS.html
55. ↑ cf. on structural adjustment and the IMF standby agreements, http://countrystudies.us/madagascar/22.htm
56. ↑ cf. Earthwatch, http://www.earthwatch.org/expedition
57. ↑ cf. P. 202 ff. "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
58. ↑ cf. Photos for Madagascar 1908, http://fr-fr.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.201627816592340.50384.112157725539350&type=1
59. ↑ cf. P. 218 ff. “Lord & Lemurs” by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
60. ↑ cf. P. 221 "Lord & Lemurs" by Alison Jolly, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004
61. ↑ cf. Famine in Madagascar 1991–1992, archived copy ( memento of the original from October 20, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.