ideology

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ideology (from French idéologie ; to ancient Greek ἰδέα idéa , here " idea ", and λόγος lógos "teaching, science" - actually "theory of ideas") stands for worldview in the broader sense of the word . In a narrower sense, it refers to the “false consciousness” of a society , going back to Karl Marx , and in the US sociology of knowledge, any system of norms that groups use to justify and evaluate their own and other people's actions is called ideology. Since Marx and Engels, the term ideology has referred to "ideas and worldviews that are not based on evidence and good arguments, but aim to stabilize or change power relations".

The ideology concept according to Marx , which plays a central role in Western Marxism, assumes that the prevailing self-image is different from the objectively possible self-image of the respective social development stage. Since the material conditions and interests determine the thinking, according to Marx the ideology of society is determined by the interests of dominant social groups, e.g. B. the bourgeoisie , influenced to justify this. A criticism of ideology can counteract these interests in order to create a correct and complete picture of society in accordance with the state of knowledge in the sense of a general interest. The theory of ideology undergoes an important further development from Georg Lukács , who links it with a theory of totalitarianism : The complete appropriation of the individual by socially organized activities and structures means that the individual can only understand himself within these structures and thus find a suitable one Ideology developed.

In the sociology of knowledge, on the other hand , ideology has established itself as a designation for formulated models of social groups or organizations that serve to justify and justify their actions - their ideas , findings , categories and values . Accordingly, they form the necessary “ we-feeling ” that guarantees the inner cohesion of every human community . This ideology term is also applied to the idea systems of political movements, interest groups, parties, etc. when speaking of political ideologies .

In social discourse , the two ideological terms are often not sufficiently distinguished from one another.

History of ideas

At the beginning of the 19th century, Antoine Louis Claude Destutt de Tracy coined the French term idéologie as a designation for the project of a "unified science of ideas or perceptions" ( science qui traite des idées ou perceptions ), which referred to the epistemology of Condillac . The Idéologistes implemented to prevent a new reign of terror an educational program for the general information to the factory. However, through a journalistic campaign by Napoleon Bonaparte , this school was attacked as an unreal, speculative system building; The concept of ideology as a coherent view of the world on the basis of incorrect premises is derived from this tradition. It was only through Marx and Engels that this term was then used critically. Previously, the term ideologue in the German-speaking world was reserved for an orientation towards ideas (instead of reality), such as freedom or a republican constitution.

The concept of ideology is, until the attempt at a functional description in the sociology of knowledge, always closely connected with the idea of ideology criticism. In addition to the positions mentioned here, the ideological terms u. a. relevant: Ferdinand Tönnies , Hans Barth , Ernst Topitsch , Hans Albert , Bertrand Russell , Louis Althusser , Theodor W. Adorno , Hannah Arendt and Jürgen Habermas .

The forerunner of the modern concept of ideology is Francis Bacon's doctrine of idols . Already here the idea of ​​uncovering wrong ideas is crucial: the cleaning of the mind from idols (illusions) is for him the prerequisite of science. Sources of these illusions can be tradition, language, origin and socialization.

The criticism of ideology played a special role in the Enlightenment . The central goal of the Enlightenment was to free people's consciousness from superstition , errors and prejudices , which according to this point of view served the medieval rulers to legitimize their rule . The French materialists , u. a. Paul Heinrich Dietrich von Holbach and Claude Adrien Helvétius , criticized the Catholic Church in particular and called its allegations - in their opinion spread in the interest of maintaining power - as priestly fraud . The Enlightenment required the political implementation of reason , science , democracy and human rights .

Arthur Schopenhauer , Max Stirner , Friedrich Nietzsche , Vilfredo Pareto (this as “derivation”) also have the idea of ​​maintaining errors about self and the world that are beneficial for the individual or society .

Marxist philosophy

Marx and Engels shaped the concept of ideology decisively

After the socialist utopian Saint Simon , Marx and Engels revived the term, which had been stigmatized since Napoleon , in the mid-19th century . Ideology is not conceived here as a conscious seduction, but as an objectively necessary semblance resulting from social conditions: According to Marx, the class character of social relations results in the tendency that the thoughts of the ruling class are in harmony with the existing relations of production , are also the dominant thoughts in society. In his main work, Das Kapital , Marx defines the commodity and money fetish as the decisive moments of perversion in capitalist production. People perceive their (work-sharing) relationships to one another as relationships between goods.

In the 20th century, Western Marxists discussed ideological moments of reification , for example by Ernst Bloch ( Geist der Utopie , 1918) or Georg Lukács ( History and Class Consciousness , 1923), for whose reification analysis the idea of ​​ideological delusion was central. Accordingly, ideology is "necessarily false consciousness". The images of reality that the subject creates are influenced or determined by subjective factors. Therefore they are not objective, but falsify reality.

Antonio Gramsci develops an ideology term in the prison notebooks that understands ideology as “lived, habitual social practice”. For him, ideology can no longer be reduced to the level of consciousness, but also includes actions of people.

According to Louis Althusser , ideologies convey consciousness to the individual and exercise power over the individual, e.g. B. in connection with so-called ideological state apparatus . In addition, ideologies enable individuals to recognize themselves as subjects in society. According to Althusser, ideology is not just manipulation , but constitutes subjects - they see themselves as free despite or because of their submission. An important thought from Althusser is that ideologies are unconscious. A central work for Althusser's ideological theory is his essay Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses from 1970.

Frankfurt School

Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno , the founders of the Frankfurt School , took over and expanded the concept of Marx's critique of ideology (Chapter Culture Industry in the Dialectic of Enlightenment , 1947). Following on from Georg Lukács' reification thesis , they saw the commodity fetish and the capitalist exchange principle as the sources of the socially generated delusion . For them, ideology is an objectively necessary and at the same time false consciousness in which the true and the untrue are intertwined, since ideology cannot do without the idea of ​​justice as an apologetic necessity. The basic model of bourgeois ideology, the “ just exchange ”, conceals the fact that in the capitalist wage employment relationship only apparently comparable things are exchanged. In the culture industry, ideology takes the form of "mass fraud". The Frankfurt ideology critics stated that ideology was obsolete in the phase of post-liberal late capitalism and fascism . In late capitalism, the factual relationships would become their own ideology, that is, reality justified itself through its being-so-and-not-different. Since fascism renounces any claim to truth in its proclamations that could expose ideology, the sheer cynicism of the power state triumphs in its domain.

According to Adorno , ideological criticism is a certain negation in the Hegelian sense, "the confrontation of the spiritual with its realization and has as a prerequisite the distinction between the true and the untrue in the judgment as well as the claim to truth in the criticized"

Critical Rationalism

In his work The Open Society and Its Enemies , Karl R. Popper criticizes the totalitarian character of certain ideologies, in particular National Socialism and Stalinism .

Totalitarian political ideologies with a comprehensive claim to truth often have elements of myth- making, historical misrepresentation, denial of truth and discrimination against competing ideas. After the experiences with National Socialism and the collapse of the real existing socialism , the skepticism towards comprehensive theoretical structures interspersed with promises of salvation has grown, especially when they are connected with calls for action or with the suppression of deviant ideas. Ideology criticism in the sense of Karl Popper includes in particular the analysis of the following points:

Ideology typology according to Kurt Lenk

The political scientist Kurt Lenk suggested a classification of ideologies in his essay on the structural change of political ideologies in the 19th and 20th centuries, which he published in his book Rechts, wo der Mitte ist . He distinguished between ideologies of justification, ideologies of complementarity, ideologies of obfuscation and ideologies of expression.

Under justification ideologies steering model forming ideologies that cover the entire social relations understood. The underlying model is usually an interpretation of reality that insists on rationality and scientificity. Such a model is ideological because it strives for its part to establish a binding understanding of reality - often under the claim of the unassailable application of rational arguments and argumentation structures - as the only “reasonably” defensible.

Lenk, on the other hand, described complementary ideologies as “vital for those societies in which the majority of people must be required to renounce their instincts in order to ensure the reproduction of societies.” Complementary ideologies would put the disadvantaged members of society off. On the one hand, this ideology contains a reality-denying promise of an objectively impossible better condition. This consoling expectation of the future is intended to paralyze the self-assertion of the interests of the disadvantaged members of society and oblige them to follow their oppressors. Complementary ideologies also work with the reference to “honesty”, according to which the state of the world is fate and human activity cannot change it.

According to Lenk, obfuscation or distraction ideologies are the creation of images of the enemy in order to avoid a discussion about the objective causes of social problems. Closely based on this aspect, he used the term ideology of expression. By this he understood an ideology that starts with the deeper layers of the soul. A friend-foe image is staged and claims are made that the masses are supposed to believe fanatically in.

Ideology and society

This article or section needs to be revised. Details should be given on the talk page. Please help to improve it , and then remove this flag.

Present ideology

The present is often referred to as the “post-ideological” or “post-ideological age” in which the subjects of society would predominantly act realistically and pragmatically - i.e. free from ideologies. The French philosopher Jean-François Lyotard justifies this with today's knowledge of the impossibility of the ultimate justification. According to this popular view, the diversity of social forces ( pluralism ) in postmodern , liberal democratic societies that permanently control each other prevents the formation of ideologies. Proponents of this idea like to refer to the failure of the great ideologically based systems in recent history (National Socialism, Communism). In this way, the term ideology is limited to its derogatory connotation and the negative images associated with it suggest the conclusion of an ideology-free present that has overcome such developments. Through the transparency of politics, which supposedly leaves no mistake undetected and corrects it immediately, those involved promise "truth and honesty": terms that have no place in an ideology.

With this modern “anti-ideology” all current social developments (technological progress , democratic systems , capitalist social order , steadily increasing economic growth, etc.) are legitimized as “true and honest”. The philosophers Slavoj Žižek and Herbert Schnädelbach point out, however, that such technocratic thinking is anything but non-ideological: One of the ideal basic conditions for an ideology is the assumption that there is no ideology.

"The perfect adaptation of consciousness and its objective inability to even imagine alternatives to the existing is the ideology of the present."

- Herbert Schnädelbach

Žižek sees this as a far more dangerous ideology than in the dictatorships: despots legitimize expropriation, expulsion, violence, etc. in the awareness of their abundance of power with obvious untruths. In contrast, in modern pluralism, a consensus of the whole of society is necessary: ​​In fact, ideological justifications would be accepted as irrefutable truths in everyday discourse and thus determine the social process without any obvious compulsion from politics . The more the citizens identify with this hidden ideology, the less the state needs to intervene. The masterminds behind the criticism of this “discursive, all-pervasive, socially organized ideology of the present” are primarily Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe .

Ideology in science

In the course of the Enlightenment, the demarcation from ideology became part of the sciences, which, in contrast to ideology and belief, endeavor to proceed in a value-free , neutral and intersubjective manner and to check the validity of their theories and hypotheses on the basis of empirical facts of experience ( philosophy of science , empirical analytical approach ).

Scientific thought patterns, paradigms or schools of ideas can also develop an ideological and defensive character and thus inhibit scientific progress. In his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn analyzed scientific paradigms from the perspective of competing schools of ideas. These determine:

  • what is observed and checked
  • the nature of the questions related to a topic
  • the direction of interpretation of the results of the scientific investigation

Individual theorists of science (including Bruno Latour ) regard the opposition between ideology and objective science as a power mechanism and a technique of obfuscation. However, this position is heavily criticized by critics as leading to total irrationality ( Sokal affair ).

Even if the natural sciences can be free of ideology, this does not necessarily apply to the social sciences . For example, in ethnology and the social sciences around the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, there are a number of examples of ideological ideas. This becomes very clear in the case of the Social Darwinist schools, which nurtured racist ideas with their records of allegedly “underdeveloped indigenous peoples ”.

A special case of Hans Albert the tray economy . Since the economics to u. a. When dealing with the question of how social work can be optimally organized, controlled or influenced, the individual scientist must also have a point of view on what is good for society . Due to different partial interests, this is inevitably always an ideological position.

Ideology and politics

Politics is always connected with ideology, a non-ideological, purely technocratic politics is unrealistic. Political programs are based on certain value systems. The basic political ideologies are liberalism (emphasis on freedom based on the market economy), socialism (emphasis on equality) and conservatism (emphasis on social traditions).

The accusation of ideologically determined argumentation is often found in political discourse . This implies that a point of view is not valid because it is based on a political ideology. In contrast, one's own point of view is presented implicitly or explicitly in such a way that it would be based on a sober analysis of the truth , common sense or an ethics that cannot be questioned . In many cases, however, the respective opposing side could justifiably claim this for itself. Unspoken ideologemes (individual elements of an ideology) often dominate the political debate without always being aware of this in the discussion.

Ideology and religion

In addition to the concept of political ideology , the concept of religious ideology is also used as an analytical category in science. A religious ideology is an ideology with a transcendent reference, which encompasses the concept of an overall existence of person and society and which can develop forces of integration and attachment in certain social groups. The emergence of a religious ideology can be due in particular to the fact that in connection with an oppositional political stance, “ denomination ” begins to play a significant role. References to world religions are made as popular examples of religious ideologies in literature , and Protestantism and Catholicism in particular are referred to as religious ideologies; regardless of whether the original motives were political. Such a designation does not mean a religion as an overall phenomenon, but a specific religious and political doctrine that can result in a religious movement. In general terms, the term religious ideology is also associated with orthodoxy and fundamentalism .

The political scientist Mathias Hildebrandt, who tried to understand the term political ideology as fundamentalism, highlighted the traditionalist aspect of specific religious currents within religions as a common feature. He wrote: “The claim is made to return to the original sources of one's own tradition and to free them from the falsifications of their historical development, which is mostly understood as a process of degeneration .” This view goes hand in hand with an “ essentialization of one's own tradition, which claims to have uncovered the true essence of one's own religion ”. The paradox with religious ideologies is, however, that in contrast to the claim to return to true doctrine, " in most cases a modern religious ideology " arises.

In addition to the concept of religious ideology in the political science of religion , the term political religion enforced. The emphasis in this term is neither on the political nor on the religious of certain ideologies. On the one hand, this term emphasizes the close connection between religious and political ways of thinking, on the other hand, the connection between ideologies that encompass both political and religious elements and political-religious movements.

The function of ideology

Ideology is - according to Karl Mannheim - "functionalization of the noological level" and thus instrumentalization of human knowledge or, more specifically - according to Roland Barthes - "transformation of history into nature."

Ideology secures the required legitimation for the existing order and satisfies the need for security and meaningfulness, which can no longer be guaranteed by religion: “The cozy would all too much like the accidental nature of everyday life, which nowadays includes romanticized contents ('myths') , hypostatize and stabilize to the absolute, so that it does not slip away from him. This is how the uncanny turn of the modern age takes place, that that category of the absolute, which was once called to capture the divine, becomes an instrument of concealment of everyday life that wants to stay with itself. "

On the other hand, ideology runs the risk of ultimately not being able to do justice to a complex reality as a closed system of meaning and of ultimately failing as a model of world explanation. Since "ideology is always self-referential, that is, it always defines itself by distancing itself from another, whom it rejects and denounces as 'ideological'", it solves "the contradiction of the alienated reality through an amputation, not through a synthesis"

Karl Mannheim's thesis of the functionalization of knowledge through ideology, Roland Barthes complements the functionalization of the myth that ideology instrumentalizes: “Semiology has taught us that myth is mandated to establish historical intention as nature. This approach is exactly that of the bourgeois ideology. If our society is objectively the privileged realm for mythical meaning, it is because myth is formally the most appropriate instrument of ideological reversal by which it is defined. On all levels of human communication, the myth turns anti-nature into pseudo-nature. "

The history of the concept of ideology is closely linked to the history of bourgeois society. Ideology according to today's understanding only becomes possible after the "disappearance of the divine reference point" which is already heralded with the beginning empiricism in Bacon's "Idolae", which as "idols" and "sources of deception" block the "path to true insight" Kant - his "Critique of Pure Reason" is preceded by a Bacon quotation about the Idolae - then finally questions the traditional understanding of being with the constantly recurring warning in the four antinomies and also in the transcendental dialectic not to misinterpret the epistemic as ontological and thus creates "after." the objectively ontological unity of the worldview was "the basis for Hegel's dialectical worldview, which" can only be conceived in relation to the subject "and could only claim validity as" a uniformity that transforms itself in historical becoming "(ibid.). Only now, after the end of the French Revolution, it results from a sense of bourgeois ideology or generally by an ideology understood to speak, then at once by Napoleon pejoratively to the actually value-free as a "doctrine of Ideas" by the late Enlightenment in succession Condillacs and the empirical tradition term applied. The essential contribution to today's understanding of ideology is likely to have been made by Karl Marx, who explains in the “Misery of Philosophy”: “... the same people who shape social relationships according to their material mode of production also shape the principles, the ideas, the categories according to their social ones Conditions ".

Even if Mannheim initially tries to differentiate between value-free and judgmental ideologies, he comes to the conclusion that the value-free ideology concept "ultimately slips into an ontological-metaphysical evaluation". In this context, Mannheim also speaks of "false consciousness" that ideology inevitably creates: “So it is primarily outdated and outdated norms and ways of thinking, but also ways of interpreting the world, which can get into this 'ideological' function and which do not clarify, but rather conceal, actions taken, the existing inner and outer being. "

Roland Barthes laments the resulting shortened view of reality as the “impoverishment of consciousness” which is achieved through the bourgeois ideology: “It is the bourgeois ideology itself, the movement, through which the bourgeoisie transforms the reality of the world into a picture the world that turns history into nature. "

See also

literature

Web links

Wikiquote: Ideology  - Quotes
Wiktionary: Ideology  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Duden online: Ideology
  2. ↑ Thomas Blume: Ideology . In: Wulff D. Rehfus (Hrsg.): Manual dictionary philosophy (=  Uni-Taschenbücher . No. 8208 ). 1st edition. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht / UTB, Göttingen / Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-8252-8208-2 ( philosophie-woerterbuch.de ( memento of April 25, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) - formerly online document No. 426). .
  3. ↑ https://www.nzz.ch/feuilleton/gender-debatte-feminismus-ist-nicht-das-gegsteil-von-wissenschaft-ld.1307637
  4. ↑ Thomas Blume: Ideology . In: Wulff D. Rehfus (Hrsg.): Manual dictionary philosophy (=  Uni-Taschenbücher . No. 8208 ). 1st edition. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht / UTB, Göttingen / Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-8252-8208-2 ( philosophie-woerterbuch.de ( memento of April 25, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) - formerly online document No. 426). .
  5. ^ Dieter Haller : Dtv-Atlas Ethnologie. 2nd, completely revised and corrected edition. dtv, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-423-03259-9 , p. 175.
  6. ↑ Brigitte Schlieben-Lange : Idéologie: On the role of categorizations in the scientific process. (Writings of the Philosophical-Historical Class of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences 18) C. Winter Universitätsverlag, Heidelberg 2000, ISBN 3-8253-0917-7 , p. 3.
  7. ↑ Napoleon in the Journal de Paris , 15 pluviôse an IX [= February 4, 1801] 815–817, cited above. also in: AH Taillandier: Documents biographiques sur PCF Daunou. Paris 1847, p. 197f.
  8. ↑ U. Dierese, entry: Ideologie (I) in: Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie Vol. 4, pp. 161–164.
  9. ↑ Thomas Blume: Ideology . In: Wulff D. Rehfus (Hrsg.): Manual dictionary philosophy (=  Uni-Taschenbücher . No. 8208 ). 1st edition. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht / UTB, Göttingen / Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-8252-8208-2 ( philosophie-woerterbuch.de ( memento of April 25, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) - formerly online document No. 426). .
  10. ↑ Terry Eagleton: Ideology. An introduction. Stuttgart / Weimar 2000, p. 136.
  11. ↑ Louis Althusser: For Marx. P. 183 ff.
  12. ^ Institute for Social Research: Sociological digressions. Keyword: XII ideology. European Publishing House, Frankfurt am Main 1956, p. 168.
  13. ↑ “Dasein becomes its own ideology”, it says in the dialectic of the Enlightenment. In: Max Horkheinmer, Theodor W. Adorno: Dialectic of Enlightenment. Philosophical Fragments. In: Theodor W. Adorno: Gesammelte Schriften. Volume 3, 2nd edition. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1984, p. 301.
  14. ↑ "Where this [ideology] is no longer added to beings as something justifying or complementary, but merges into the appearance of what is, is inevitable and thus legitimized, criticism is aimed at it, which operates with the clear causal relationship between superstructure and substructure." Theodor W. Adorno: Negative Dialectic. In. ders .: Collected writings. Volume 6, 5th edition. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1996, p. 264f.
  15. ^ Theodor W. Adorno: Contribution to the theory of ideologies. In: ders .: Collected writings. Volume 8: Sociological Writings I. 3rd Edition. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1990, p. 466.
  16. ↑ Kurt Salamun : Perspectives on an ideology theory in the sense of critical rationalism. In: Karl R. Popper and the philosophy of critical rationalism: for the 85th birthday of Karl R. Popper. (= Studies on Austrian Philosophy. Volume 14). Verlag Rodopi, 1989, ISBN 90-5183-091-2 , p. 263 f.
  17. ↑ Herfried Münkler : Mythical Magic - The great stories and politics. In: Otto Depenheuer (Hrsg.): Stories from the state: Ideas as the basis of statehood. 1st edition. VS-Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2011, ISBN 978-3-531-18073-1 , p. 146.
  18. ↑ a b Lars Distelhorst: Achievement: The end stage of ideology. transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2014, ISBN 978-3-7328-2597-4 , section 7.
  19. ↑ Lino Klevesath, Holger Zapf (ed.): Democracy - Culture - Modernity: Perspectives of Political Theory. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-486-59653-3 , p. 267.
  20. ↑ Peter Tepe: Ideology. Edition, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / Boston 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-019051-9 . Pp. 6, 135-136.
  21. ↑ books.google.ch
  22. ↑ Klaus von Beyme : Political Theories in the Age of Ideologies: 1789-1945. VS Verlag, 2002, ISBN 3-531-13875-8 , p. 49.
  23. ↑ a b Winfried Eberhard: Monarchy and Resistance. On the formation of the class opposition in the ruling system of Ferdinand I in Bohemia. Oldenbourg, Munich 1985, ISBN 3-486-51881-X , p. 215 f.
  24. ↑ Andreas Kött: System theory and religion: with a religion typology following Niklas Luhmann. Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2003, ISBN 3-8260-2575-X , pp. 353-345.
  25. ↑ James Samuel Coleman: Foundations of Social Theory . Volume 2: Corporations and Modern Society. Oldenbourg, Munich 1992, ISBN 3-486-55909-5 , p. 214.
  26. ^ Philippe Büttgen, Christian Jouhaud: Time leaps. Research on the early modern period . Volume 12: Lire Michel de Certeau - Michel de Certeau. Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-465-04047-7 , p. 241; Joachim Bahlcke , Rudolf Grulich (Ed.): Catholic Church and Culture in Bohemia. Selected treatises . Münster / Berlin a. a. 2005, ISBN 3-8258-6687-4 , p. 110 f.
  27. ^ Philippe Büttgen, Christian Jouhaud: Time leaps. Research on the early modern period . Volume 12: Lire Michel de Certeau - Michel de Certeau. Frankfurt am Main 2008, pp. 19 and 241.
  28. ↑ Stefan von Hoyningen-Huene : Religiosity in right-wing extremist youth . Münster / Hamburg 2003, ISBN 3-8258-6327-1 , p. 49. (Zugl .: Bielefeld, Univ., Diss., 2002.)
  29. ^ A b Mathias Hildebrandt: War of Religions? In: From Politics and Contemporary History . Issue 6 (2007).
  30. ^ Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia. 8th edition. Frankfurt 1995, p. 55.
  31. ^ Roland Barthes: Myths of everyday life. Frankfurt 1976, p. 129.
  32. ^ Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia. 8th edition. Frankfurt 1995, p. 78.
  33. ↑ Slavoj Žižek: The Trickery of the Subject. Frankfurt 2010, p. 492.
  34. ^ Roland Barthes: Myths of everyday life. Frankfurt 1976, p. 150.
  35. ^ Roland Barthes: Myths of everyday life. Frankfurt 1976, p. 130.
  36. ^ Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia. 8th edition. Frankfurt 1995, p. 65.
  37. ^ Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia. 8th edition. Frankfurt 1995, p. 58.
  38. ^ Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia. 8th edition. Frankfurt 1995, p. 61.
  39. ^ Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia. 8th edition. Frankfurt 1995, p. 62.
  40. ↑ Karl Marx: The misery of philosophy. Stuttgart-Berlin 1921, p. 91. Quoted from: Karl Mannheim: Ideologie und Utopie. 8th edition. Frankfurt 1995, p. 55.
  41. ^ Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia. 8th edition. Frankfurt 1995, p. 78.
  42. ^ Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia. 8th edition. Frankfurt 1995, p. 84.
  43. ^ Roland Barthes: Myths of everyday life . Frankfurt 1976, p. 128.
  44. ^ Roland Barthes: Myths of everyday life. Frankfurt 1976, p. 129.