Cowries

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Cowries
Monetaria annulus

Monetaria annulus

Systematics
Class : Snails (gastropoda)
Superordinate : Caenogastropoda
Order : Sorbeoconcha
Subordination : Hypsogastropoda
Superfamily : Cypraeoidea
Family : Cowries
Scientific name
Cypraeidae
Rafinesque , 1815

Cowrie snails (Cypraeidae), also known as porcelain snails (explanation: see chapter "naming" ), are predominantly tropical sea ​​snails , of which around 200 species are known to date. Their oldest known ancestors come from the Upper Jura . According to the outdated and no longer managed system according to J. Thiele (1929–1931), the family of cowrie shells belonged to the group of forelegs ( Prosobranchia ). According to the more recent system of Bouchet, Rocroi et al. (2005) they belong to the Caenogastropoda taxon and are subordinate to the Hypsogastropoda group . The common designation as “cowrie shell ” is biologically incorrect, as mussels have a shell made of two similarly sized, calcareous shells and, unlike snails, do not have a head. The shells of the snails are characterized by a sinuous shape. The popular term "Kauri" means not only the cowrie shell itself, but also the New Zealand kauri tree ( Agathis australis ).

Occurrence and habitat

The species of the Kauri family are sea snails that live as epibenthonic shallow-water inhabitants mostly on coral reefs in a water depth that still enjoys light penetration. This is the so-called euphotic zone , which is characterized by the fact that it is close to the surface, which means that there is sufficient light for photosynthesis . This means that sufficient algae are available as food for the cowrie snail in this area. In the clearest marine areas, the depth of the euphotic zone is up to 200 m. In addition, the porcelain snails inhabit all seas with a water temperature above 18 ° C in the coldest month. This means that their greatest occurrence can be found in the tropical and subtropical areas. They occur there mainly on the eastern continental margins. Since cowrie shells depend on warmer water temperatures, seas in the tropics and subtropics with cold currents are not colonized by these species. The majority of the species can be found in the Indo-Pacific. Exceptions, however, are endemic species such as the Trivia monacha (European cowrie snail), which live on rocks and sandy soils. The distribution of the European cowrie shell stretches from the Mediterranean over the Atlantic coast and Brittany to the west coasts of Britain and Ireland. The two species Cypraea annulus and Cypraea moneta , best known for their cultural history, are found in the Indo-Pacific, from the east coast of Africa to Australia, from Japan to Tuamotu and Hawaii in the central Pacific.

morphology

In the following, the specific morphological characteristics of the sea snail kauri are explained. Because of their type of oxygen uptake, the lung and gill snails are described here.

body

The snail's body consists of a head, a mantle and the creeper, which is very muscular, wide and elastic. On the side of the head there are two long extendable feelers at the base, close to the head, with one eye each. The so-called sipho (breathing tube) is located between the sensors at the front end of the head as an auxiliary breathing organ, which introduces the breathing water and thus ensures the absorption of oxygen in the gills. The jacket, which surrounds the intestines (stomach, kidneys, heart, gills ) as a thin membrane inside the shell , covers the housing almost completely from the outside and can be retracted if, for example, danger threatens. It secretes lime , which creates the firm and thick snail shell. The lime for the shell structure is absorbed through the food, but can be partially loosened from the soil by the slime of the crawling sole. In addition, the mantle protects the shell from being overgrown by other organisms and leads to the typical shiny surface of the shell of the cowrie shells.

casing

The subfamilies of cowrie shells are made up of different species and ecological types depending on their environment. The mostly egg-shaped or pear-shaped cases can therefore, depending on the species, reach a length of 1 cm ( Pupuradusta oryzaeformis , Polynesia) to 19 cm ( Macrocypraea cervus , West Atlantic) when fully grown . The size differences between the organisms of a species can also vary. It should be noted that the shape and size of the housing of young and old animals differ significantly. In addition, the housing of the males is usually smaller than that of the females. The adult body is oddly shaped in comparison to the classical, outward spiral shape of the generally known screw housing, as the turns (in the early juvenile stages overlap visible as a spiral housing) along the entire length. The final size of the housing is determined by the fact that the outer lip rolls inwards and thus forms a narrow slot opening from which the animal can come or through which the animal can withdraw in the event of danger. This slot opening is located on the flat base of the housing and has parallel transverse ribs on its inner edges that pull outward and are called teeth (Figure 2, right). The dots and drawings on the shell are caused by papillae on the outside and inside of the mantle, which create the different colors and thus enable camouflage from predators. The color of the jacket seems to be independent of that of the housing.

Way of life

Ingestion

In the terminal mouth there is a radula (rasp tongue) covered with chitinous teeth , which is suitable for rasping surfaces and chopping up food. The diet of the cowrie snails is species-specific. Although many of them eat sponges, there are both herbivorous and omnivorous species, as well as necrophages . The diet of cowrie shells is made up of lower animals such as polyps ( Hydrozoa ), coral animals ( Madrepora ), annelids ( Annelida ), small crabs ( Crustacea ) and snail eggs. But algae and corals are also on their menu. In the necrophage species, the diet consists exclusively of dead organisms. Most species of cowrie shells are nocturnal, which means that they feed at night and hide in caves in the reef during the day. Some species leave their traditional hiding place in search of food and then return early in the morning (e.g. Lyncina vitellus). There are few species that are not hidden during the day, which can be attributed on the one hand to possible competitive pressure or the availability of food at the time of day, on the other hand to the visual orientation of the organism itself.

Predators

Snakehead cowrie snail ( Cypraea caputserpensis ) is eaten by marble cone snail ( Conus marmoreus )

Some fish species, such as the puffer fish family ( Tetraodontidae ), which have powerful jaws and can crack the shells or devour the shell and the animal as a whole, are predators of the cowries . There are also predators who have special tools to get at their prey. So z. B. the common octopus ( Octopus vulgaris ) pierces a hole in the shell, then injects poison that paralyzes the animal. The octopus then dissolves the prey's internal organs with its digestive juice and soaks up the protein juice.

Reproduction

Sexual segregation and sexual dimorphism can be observed in porcelain snails, which means that there are both male and female cowries in every species. The gonad of the snail produces either egg cells or sperm cells. After mating, the female deposits a clutch on corals, stones, coconut shells or similar bodies or structures at the low water line. It covers the clutch with its foot until the small swimming larvae have hatched (approx. 5–6 days). The clutches consist of around 150–300 egg pouches glued together, each containing 500–600 eggs, so that a female produces around a hundred thousand eggs. The swimming larvae ( Veliger larvae) spread as part of the plankton through the currents in the open water area ( pelagic ). Veliger larvae already have attachments of organs from a fully grown snail, such as eyes, antennae attachments and the shell lid ( operculum ). After a metamorphosis, young cowrie snails emerge from the swimming larvae at the bottom of the shallow water area after 2–3 months. Since the cowrie shell is a very small organism in relation to its potential enemies, which is exposed to many predators, especially in the larval stage, this is an R-strategist . This means that the organism compensates for predatory interventions in clutches and larvae through its extremely high production rate. It is not clear from this literature review how long it takes for the sexual organs to mature and for the young cowrie snail to harden its initially soft shell through the build-up of calcium.

The importance of the cowrie shells in human cultural history

Some species, such as Cypraea moneta, were used in the past in Africa, in East and South Asia and in the South Seas as a means of payment (" Kaurigeld "). In Southeast Asia, South India and East Africa, cowrie shells are used as game pieces in various Mancala variants, including z. B. Bao La Kiswahili and Congkak . The tiger snail (Cypraea tigris) is common in the Indo-Pacific . Some Cypraeenarten as Cypraea tigris and Cypraea pantherina arrived in the Roman Empire and the early Middle Ages in large numbers to Europe, where they were worn by women as an amulet and after death as grave goods came into the graves. The shell of the snail also plays a role as a cult object in connection with voodoo .

Cypraea annulus

Naming

The name Kauri comes from the Hindi kauṛī ( कौड़ी , pronunciation ˈkɔːɽiː ). It refers to the two species Cypraea annulus (Latin for ring) and Cypraea moneta (Latin for money). The term annulus ("ring") describes the yellow-orange circle on the back of the snail shell of that species. The term porcelain, however, is derived from the Italian name for cowrie snail ("porcellana"). Because of the nature of the snail shell, at the end of the 13th century porcelain was compared to the shell of the cowrie snail and the name of the snail was transferred to the valuable material.

Cypraea nebrites

"In today's Chinese script, the Kauri ( Pei ) forms more than 200 compositions for words that mean money, buying, selling and other terms of trade and money economy". In Malay it is named Beja for the meaning of customs and taxes. In Hindi, kauṛī also generally means “small coin, groschen, penny” and can be found in idioms such as “not worth a penny”, “turn over every penny” or “pay for a penny”. It found its way into Persia around 1100 AD under the name "donkey shell", due to its frequent use as animal jewelry.

Occurrence of the cowrie shell as a cultural object

In the interior of North Africa and Eurasia, several grave finds point to the import of the cowrie shell. The cowrie snails were already around 6000 BC in the Neolithic (New Stone Age). Known in Kassu (China). In Mesopotamia, in the Iron Age ruins of approx. Found destroyed Nimrud Cypraea annulus . On the lower Vistula , cowries lay in facial urns from the Hallstatt period (800–475 BC) and in the graves of the Arab-Nordic and Roman cultures. In Egypt, cowrie shells were a popular piece of jewelry and were often worn by women in a row around the waist. They were probably given a protective role for women, which probably had to do with their resemblance to the female sexual organ . Golden cowrie shells were found in the funerals of princesses. At the lower or there were finds of cowries in an old pagan grave and in a passage grave . They came to Sweden in the 9th century AD, as shown by a grave find from Kauri on Björko in Lake Mälaren. The finds as "mostly burial objects placed in the area of ​​the lap" go back almost exclusively to women graves of the richer classes of the population, which suggests the value of the kauri as a symbol of fertility. Due to its external shape, it was associated with the female genitals in Europe, especially in antiquity and the early Middle Ages, and was worn as a fertility amulet. Individual amulets against the 'evil eye' allow an association with the eye. "In Europe the occurrence of finds reached its peak during the early Middle Ages". In southwest Germany and Switzerland, these cowrie shells are mainly the species Cypraea pantherina , which occurs only in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. The spread over such distances allows conclusions to be drawn about early trade routes. The cowries do not occur in the same amount in all phases of late antiquity and the Middle Ages. The cowrie shells reached their peak as grave goods in Europe in the late 4th century, in the middle of the 6th century to around AD 600 and from the 9th to 12th centuries especially in the Carpathian Basin . However, this is the species Cypraea moneta , which suggests the different trading networks in Europe at the time. The various phases can in part be justified by crises such as wars or scarcity of resources due to environmental influences. In the trade routes around the 6th and 7th centuries AD, the Rhône-Saône corridor played a decisive role in the spread of cowrie shells in Europe, which can be traced as far as England and Scandinavia. In general, the early use of the water trade routes in Europe has resulted in an accumulation of sites along the major river systems (see Fig. 7). The Alpine passes only gained importance as trade routes at the end of the 7th century. Find gaps, as in the Lower Rhine, are often due to lime-poor soils, which worsen the chances of preserving calcareous snail shells or skeletons. The Cypraea moneta had been spreading as money since around 1500 BC. From the Ryūkyū Islands (Japanese archipelago in the East China Sea ) to China and since 400 AD from the Maldives Islands to Persia, the Indian Ocean and the Indian Ocean and conquered almost all of Africa. In modern times, the cowrie shell is mainly used in northern and central Europe as jewelry for horse leather.

Currency and trade

Video: The first means of payment

The sheen, the beautiful colors and patterns on the shell, as well as the handiness and strength of the shell, as well as the low weight, made the cowrie shell a popular currency in the South Seas, Africa, East and South Asia. It was usually packed in a certain number (e.g. 12,000 pieces) in bags or traded strung on strings pierced. In China, from 1500 BC. Until 200 BC Chr. Cypraea moneta used as a means of payment. It was used as a dividing coin in Tibet until the 12th century AD . Cypraea moneta was most widely used as a currency in the Indian suburbs from the 4th to 6th centuries AD. Cypraea annulus was common currency in Bengal and Siam from the 18th to the middle of the 19th century.

From the 13th century, the Venetians took over the kauri trade in those areas that stretch from the Indian Ocean to Africa. Just as the Arabs did before, they brought the medium of exchange with ships from the Maldives to Morocco. From there, the kauri currency spread to the south and east with caravans. Around 1520 slaves were first traded in West Africa with cowrie money. At the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese, Dutch and English entered the lucrative trade with the Guinea coast. In the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century they bought slaves in Guinea for the kauri, which had twice the value there as in the Maldives or in the Indian trading centers, which they then sold in America at great profit. In the middle of the 19th century, French and German companies successfully introduced the East African Cypraea annulus on the Guinea coast . The subsequent constant mass importation ultimately led to kauri inflation there. As a result, it was replaced as a means of payment by coins of European nations. In some areas in the interior of Africa, the cowrie shell was still used as a dividing coin around 1950. The amount of cowrie shells that were imported to West Africa during the 19th century alone is estimated to be at least 75 billion pieces (approx. 115,000 tons). If you were to arrange the 2 × 1 × 1 cm³ large bowls close together in a row, this would have a length of 1,500,000 km. There are sources that show how large numbers of cowries were collected. For example, around 1883, men and women in the Maldives waded through the coastal waters for three days twice a month to collect cowrie shells. Some of them could capture up to 12,000 pieces in a day. The cowrie shell circulated as currency in more places in the world than a coin has ever done. In Europe, however, it found less use as a currency than for decoration and religious rituals.

Value of a Kauri

Tab. 1: Value of the cowrie shell.
Tab. 2: Purchasing power of 100 cowries in gold pennies.
Tab. 3: The importance of cowrie shells in delivering messages.

Around 1850 in Sudan you could get a handful of beans, a bowl of drinking water, a needle or an onion for a kauri. Due to the low individual value of the piece, it was possible to buy the everyday item you need in very small quantities. In the larger market towns of West Africa there was a fixed rate for the kauri, although the value of the kauri did not remain the same in all places and at all times, as can be seen from Tables 1 and 2.

The cowrie shell as jewelry, talisman, badge of rank and for messages

When the cowrie shell first appeared in an area, it was valued as an ornament, making it a popular medium of exchange. However, areas where kauri was the currency did not coincide with those where kauri jewelry was preferred. Due to the beauty of the shells with their colors and shine, but also due to their uniform size and egg-shaped shape, the cowrie snail is particularly suitable for creating patterns and decorating objects and people. It was used as jewelry in Germany, Tyrol and Hungary, as well as in the Middle East, Persia, India, West Africa and Egypt for train, riding or carrying animals. Even if only sporadically, they were used in Europe to adorn the straps, bags and leather belts used by butchers and cattle tailors. From southern and eastern Europe to Tibet and India, on the other hand, they were preferably used as jewelry in women's hair, as loose, drooping cowries sewn to the edges of hats and on neckbands and headbands. Headgear made from cowries found its way into China, East and West Africa. Kauri jewelry is most widespread in the Indo-Pacific and Africa in the form of chains and earrings, or as a talisman on the neck and chest. Furthermore we find embroidered aprons, chest sashes, belts, women's jackets and skirts. Ornate musical instruments and dance masks as well as embroidered vessels, quivers and sword scabbards give an idea of ​​the importance of the kauri as talismans. Even in recent times, the cowrie shell is not used as a currency, but as a piece of jewelry worldwide.

In Japan and India, the cowrie shell is still sometimes held in the hand of the woman giving birth as a talisman. Kauri necklaces, with which women are hung in West Africa before and during childbirth, protect against evil spirits. Because of the association of its external shape with the female genitalia and the enormously high production rate as an R-strategist , the cowrie shell is given great importance as a fertility symbol. As a sign of honor for the mother in Japan, in contrast, it serves as a sign of the untouched virgin in southern India. At the time of the slave trade, shells of the cowrie shell woven into messenger strings could express the sender's feelings. A few examples are given in the following table (Table 3).

Systematics

The following is the system of the Cypraeidae family, as described by Felix Lorenz in 2006. This view is based on Chris Meyer's DNA studies from 2004.

Subfamily genus Art Described by year
Archaic groups Ipsa childreni Gray 1825
Archaic groups Nesiocypraea aenigma Lorenz 2002
Archaic groups Nesiocypraea lisetae Kilburn 1975
Archaic groups Nesiocypraea midwayensis Azuma & Kurohara 1967
Archaic groups Nesiocypraea teramachii Kuroda 1938
Archaic groups Propustularia surinamensis Perry 1811
Bernayinae Barycypraea fultoni Sowerby 1903
Bernayinae Barycypraea expensive Cazenavette 1846
Bernayinae Zoila decipiens Smith 1880
Bernayinae Zoila eludens Raybaudi 1991
Bernayinae Zoila friendii Gray 1831
Bernayinae Zoila jeaniana Cate 1968
Bernayinae Zoila ketyana Raybaudi 1978
Bernayinae Zoila marginata Gas coin 1849
Bernayinae Zoila mariellae Raybaudi 1983
Bernayinae Zoila orientalis Raybaudi 1985
Bernayinae Zoila perlae Lopez & Chiang 1975
Bernayinae Zoila rosselli Cotton 1948
Bernayinae Zoila thersites Gas coin 1849
Bernayinae Zoila venusta Sowerby 1846
Cypraeinae (Cypraeini) Cypraea pantherina Lightfoot 1786
Cypraeinae (Cypraeini) Cypraea Tigris Linnaeus 1758
Cypraeinae (Cypraeini) Muracypraea mus Linnaeus 1758
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Leporicypraea geographica Signs & signs 1933
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Leporicypraea mappa Linnaeus 1758
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Leporicypraea valentia Perry 1811
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Macrocypraea cervinetta Kiener 1843
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Macrocypraea cervus Linnaeus 1771
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Macrocypraea zebra Linnaeus 1758
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Mauritia arabica Linnaeus 1758
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Mauritia asiatica Signs & signs 1939
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Mauritia depressa Gray 1824
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Mauritia eglantina Duclos 1833
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Mauritia grayana Signs 1930
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Mauritia histrio Gmelin 1791
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Mauritia immanis Signs & signs 1939
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Mauritia maculifera Signs 1932
Cypraeinae (Mauritiini) Mauritia scurra Gmelin 1791
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula alfredensis Signs & signs 1929
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula algoensis Gray 1825
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula capensis Gray 1828
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula castanea Higgins 1868
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula colligata Lorenz 2002
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula connelli Liltved 1983
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula coronata Signs 1930
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula cruickshanki Kilburn 1972
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula edentula Gray 1825
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula fuscodentata Gray 1825
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula fuscorubra Shaw 1909
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula immelmani Liltved 2001
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula iutsui Shikama 1974
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula kesslerorum Lorenz 2006
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula mikeharti Lorenz 1985
Cypraeovulinae Cypraeovula volvens Fazzini & Bergonzoni 2004
Cypraeovulinae Notocypraea angustata Gmelin 1791
Cypraeovulinae Notocypraea comptonii Gray 1847
Cypraeovulinae Notocypraea declivis Sowerby 1870
Cypraeovulinae Notocypraea dissecta Iredale 1931
Cypraeovulinae Notocypraea piperita Gray 1825
Cypraeovulinae Notocypraea pulicaria Reeve 1846
Cypraeovulinae Notocypraea subcarnea Beddome 1896
Erosariinae Cryptocypraea dillwyni Signs 1922
Erosariinae Erosaria acicularis Gmelin 1791
Erosariinae Erosaria albuginosa Gray 1825
Erosariinae Erosaria beckii Gas coin 1836
Erosariinae Erosaria bernardi Richard 1974
Erosariinae Erosaria boivinii Kiener 1843
Erosariinae Erosaria cernica Sowerby 1870
Erosariinae Erosaria citrina Gray 1825
Erosariinae Erosaria eburnea Barnes 1824
Erosariinae Erosaria englerti Summers & Burgess 1965
Erosariinae Erosaria erosa Linnaeus 1758
Erosariinae Erosaria gangranosa Dillwyn 1817
Erosariinae Erosaria helvola Linnaeus 1758
Erosariinae Erosaria irrorata Gray 1828
Erosariinae Erosaria labrolineata Gas coin 1849
Erosariinae Erosaria lamarckii Gray 1825
Erosariinae Erosaria macandrewi Sowerby 1870
Erosariinae Erosaria marginalis Dillwyn 1827
Erosariinae Erosaria miliaris Gmelin 1791
Erosariinae Erosaria nebrites Melvill 1888
Erosariinae Erosaria ocellata Linnaeus 1758
Erosariinae Erosaria ostergaardi Dall 1921
Erosariinae Erosaria poraria Linnaeus 1758
Erosariinae Erosaria spurca Linnaeus 1758
Erosariinae Erosaria thomasi Crosse 1865
Erosariinae Erosaria turdus Lamarck 1810
Erosariinae Monetaria annulus Linnaeus 1758
Erosariinae Monetaria caputdraconis Melvill 1888
Erosariinae Monetaria caputophidii Signs 1927
Erosariinae Monetaria caputserpentis Linnaeus 1758
Erosariinae Monetaria moneta Linnaeus 1758
Erosariinae Monetaria obvelata Lamarck 1810
Erosariinae Monetaria sublitorea Lorenz 1998
Erosariinae Nucleolaria granules Pease 1862
Erosariinae Nucleolaria nucleus Linnaeus 1758
Erosariinae Perisserosa guttata Gmelin 1791
Erosariinae Staphylaea limacina Lamarck 1810
Erosariinae Staphylaea semiplota Mighels 1845
Erosariinae Staphylaea staphylaea Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Bistolida brevidentata Sowerby 1870
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Bistolida diauges Melvill 1888
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Bistolida erythraeensis Sowerby 1837
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Bistolida goodallii Sowerby 1832
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Bistolida hirundo Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Bistolida kieneri Hidalgo 1906
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Bistolida owenii Sowerby 1837
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Bistolida stolida Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Bistolida ursellus Gmelin 1791
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula astaryi Signs 1971
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula catholicorum Signs & signs 1938
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula comma Perry 1811
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula cribraria Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula cumingii Sowerby 1832
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula esontropia Duclos 1833
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula exmouthensis Melvill 1888
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula fallax Smith 1881
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula garciai Lorenz & Raines 2001
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula gaskoinii Reeve 1846
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula gaspardi Biraghi & Nicolay 1993
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula gravida Moretzsohn 2002
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula melwardi Iredale 1930
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula pellisserpentis Lorenz 1999
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Cribrarula taitae Burgess 1993
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Ovatipsa chinensis Gmelin 1791
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Ovatipsa coloba Melvill 1888
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta androyensis Blöcher & Lorenz 1999
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta artuffeli Jousseaume 1876
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta asellus Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta clandestina Linnaeus 1767
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta contaminata Sowerby 1832
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta diluculum Reeve 1845
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta humphreysii Gray 1825
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta johnsonorum Lorenz 2002
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta lentiginosa Gray 1825
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta lutea Gmelin 1791
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta saulae Gas coin 1843
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Palmadusta ziczac Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Talostolida latior Melvill 1888
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Talostolida pellucens Melvill 1888
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Talostolida pseudoteres Lorenz & Barbier 1992
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Talostolida rashleighana Melvill 1888
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Talostolida subteres Wine purchase 1881
Erroneinae (Bistolidini) Talostolida teres Gmelin 1791
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Austrasiatica alexhuberti Lorenz & Huber 2000
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Austrasiatica deforgesi Lorenz 2002
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Austrasiatica hirasei Roberts 1913
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Austrasiatica langfordi Kuroda 1938
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Austrasiatica sakuraii Have 1970
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Blasicrura interrupta Gray 1824
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Blasicrura pallidula Gas coin 1849
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Blasicrura summersi Signs 1958
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Contradusta barclayi Reeve 1857
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Contradusta bregeriana Crosse 1868
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Contradusta pulchella Swainson 1823
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Contradusta walkeri Sowerby 1832
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Eclogavena coxeni Cox 1873
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Eclogavena dayritiana Cate 1963
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Eclogavena luchuana Kuroda 1960
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Eclogavena quadrimaculata Gray 1824
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea angioyorum Biraghi 1978
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea caurica Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea cylindrica Born 1778
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea errones Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea fernandoi Cate 1969
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea nymphae Jay 1850
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea onyx Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea ovum Gmelin 1791
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea pallida Gray 1824
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea pyriformis Gray 1824
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea rabaulensis Signs 1964
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea subviridis Reeve 1835
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea succincta Linnaeus 1758
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea vredenburgi Signs 1927
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Erronea xanthodon Sowerby 1832
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Melicerona felina Gmelin 1791
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Melicerona listeri Gray 1824
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Notadusta hungerfordi Sowerby 1888
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Notadusta Martini Schepman 1907
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Notadusta punctata Linnaeus 1771
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Palmulacypraea    boucheti Lorenz 2002
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Palmulacypraea katsuae Kuroda 1960
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Palmulacypraea musumea Kuroda & have 1961
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Purpuradusta barbieri Raybaudi 1986
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Purpuradusta fimbriata Gmelin 1791
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Purpuradusta gracilis Gas coin 1849
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Purpuradusta hammondae Iredale 1939
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Purpuradusta microdon Gray 1828
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Purpuradusta minoridens Melvill 1901
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Purpuradusta oryzaeformis Lorenz & Sterba 1999
Erroneinae (Erroneini) Purpuradusta serrulifera Signs & signs 1938
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini)    Annepona mariae Signs 1927
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Arestorides argus Linnaeus 1758
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Austrocypraea reevei Sowerby 1832
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Chelycypraea testudinaria Linnaeus 1758
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina aurantium Gmelin 1791
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina broderipii Sowerby 1832
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina camelopardalis Perry 1811
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina carneola Linnaeus 1758
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina joycae Clover 1970
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina kuroharai Kuroda & have 1961
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina leucodon Broderip 1828
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina Leviathan Signs & signs 1937
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina lynx Linnaeus 1758
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina nivosa Broderip 1827
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina porteri Cate 1966
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina schilderorum Iredale 1939
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina sulcidentata Gray 1824
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina ventriculus Lamarck 1810
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Lyncina vitellus Linnaeus 1758
Luriinae (Austrocypraeini) Trona stercoraria Linnaeus 1758
Luriinae (Luriini) Luria cinerea Gmelin 1791
Luriinae (Luriini) Luria controversa Gray 1824
Luriinae (Luriini) Luria gilvella Lorenz 2002
Luriinae (Luriini) Luria isabella Linnaeus 1758
Luriinae (Luriini) Luria isabellamexicana    Stearns 1893
Luriinae (Luriini) Luria lurida Linnaeus 1758
Luriinae (Luriini) Luria pulchra Gray 1824
Luriinae (Luriini) Luria tessellata Swainson 1822
Luriinae (Luriini) Talparia exusta Sowerby 1832
Luriinae (Luriini) Talparia talpa Linnaeus 1758
Pseudozonariinae Neobernaya spadicea Swainson 1823
Pseudozonariinae Pseudozonaria aequinoctialis Signs 1933
Pseudozonariinae Pseudozonaria annettae Dall 1909
Pseudozonariinae Pseudozonaria arabicula Lamarck 1810
Pseudozonariinae Pseudozonaria nigropunctata Gray 1828
Pseudozonariinae Pseudozonaria robertsi Hidalgo 1906
Pustulariinae Pustularia bistrinotata Signs & signs 1937
Pustulariinae Pustularia chiapponii Lorenz 1999
Pustulariinae Pustularia cicercula Linnaeus 1758
Pustulariinae Pustularia globulus Linnaeus 1758
Pustulariinae Pustularia Margarita Dillwyn 1817
Pustulariinae Pustularia mauiensis Burgess 1967
Umbiliinae Umbilia armeniaca Verco 1912
Umbiliinae Umbilia capricornica Lorenz 1989
Umbiliinae Umbilia hesitata Iredale 1916
Umbiliinae Umbilia oriettae Lorenz & Massiglia 2005
Umbiliinae Umbilia petilirostris Darragh 2002
Zonariinae Schilderia achatidea Sowerby 1837
Zonariinae Zonaria angelicae Clover 1974
Zonariinae Zonaria picta Gray 1824
Zonariinae Zonaria pyrum Gmelin 1791
Zonariinae Zonaria sanguinolenta Gmelin 1791
Zonariinae Zonaria zonaria Gmelin 1791

Systematics (alternative)

The family Cypraeidae is divided by some authors into these subfamilies: Cypraeinae Rafinesque-Schmaltz, 1815, Erosariinae Schilder, 1924, Erroneinae Schilder, 1927, Giscortiinae Schilder, 1927, Luriinae Schilder, 1927 and Pustulariinae Gill, 1871. The list of the genera:

literature

  • Karl Banghard:  Cowrie shell. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 16, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2000, ISBN 3-11-016782-4 , pp. 344–347.
  • Philippe Bouchet, Jean-Pierre Rocroi: Part 2. Working classification of the Gastropoda . In: Malacologia , Volume 47, Ann Arbor 2005, ISSN  0076-2997 , pp. 239-283.
  • Warwick Bray; D. Trump: Lexicon of Archeology . Munich 1970.
  • Helmut Debelius , Rudie H. Kuiter : Atlas of the marine invertebrates . Cosmos 2009.
  • Max Ebert: Real Lexicon of Prehistory . Berlin 1926.
  • T. Garrison: Oceanography. An invitation of Marine Science . Wadsworth Group. California 2002.
  • Jan Hogendorn, M. Johnson: The shell money often the slave trade. African studies series 49 . Cambridge University Press 1986.
  • J. Hoops: Real Lexicon of Germanic antiquity . 2nd ed. Vol. 16. Göttingen 2000.
  • Annette Lennartz: The sea snail Cypraea as an amulet in the early Middle Ages . In: Bonner Jahrbücher , Volume 104, 2004, pp. 163–232.
  • R. Alexander McNeill: The Invertebrates . Cambridge 1979.
  • Victor Millard: Classification of the Mollusca. A Classification of World Wide Mollusca . Rhine Road, South Africa 1997, ISBN 0-620-21261-6 .
  • Frank Riedel: Origin and evolution of the "higher" Caenogastropoda . Berlin 2000, 240 pp., ISBN 3-89582-077-6 ( Berlin Geoscientific Treatises , Series E, Volume 32).
  • Maria Schilder: The cowrie shell . Leipzig 1952.
  • U. Sommer: Biological Oceanography . Jumper. Heidelberg 1998.

Web links

Commons : Cowrie shell  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: cowrie shell  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 4.11 .
  2. Helmut Debelius, Rudi H. Kuiter: Atlas of the invertebrate marine animals . Franckh-Kosmos, 2009, ISBN 978-3-440-11042-3 , pp. 258 f .
  3. a b c Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 4 .
  4. Ulrich Sommer : Biological Oceanography . Springer textbook, Berlin / Heidelberg 1998, ISBN 978-3-540-63512-3 , p. 19 .
  5. Excursion to Elba. (PDF) (No longer available online.) In: Online presence of the biological faculty of the TU Darmstadt. Archived from the original on July 9, 2011 ; Retrieved December 13, 2010 .
  6. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 24 .
  7. a b c d Helmut Debelius, Rudi H. Kuiter: Atlas of the invertebrate marine animals . Franckh-Kosmos, 2009, ISBN 978-3-440-11042-3 , pp. 326 .
  8. a b Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 5 .
  9. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 9 .
  10. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 6 .
  11. ^ A b Jan Hogendorn, Marion Johnson: The Shell Money of the Slave Trade . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986, ISBN 978-0-521-32086-3 , pp. 5 .
  12. Helmut Debelius, Rudi H. Kuiter: Atlas of the invertebrate marine animals . Franckh-Kosmos, 2009, ISBN 978-3-440-11042-3 , pp. 259 .
  13. Helmut Debelius, Rudi H. Kuiter: Atlas of the invertebrate marine animals . Franckh-Kosmos, 2009, ISBN 978-3-440-11042-3 , pp. 258 .
  14. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 7 .
  15. Veliger larva. In: Spektrum.de. Retrieved January 19, 2011 .
  16. ^ Wolfgang Bertsch: The Use of Maldivian Cowries as Money According to an 18th Century Portuguese Dictionary on World Currencies . In: Oriental Numismatic Society Newsletter . No. 165 , 2000, pp. 16-19 .
  17. ^ Peter Hofrichter: Kauri cultural history . 25 years of the Hanseatic Coin Guild 1969–1994. Hamburg 1994, pp. 127-222.
  18. ^ Jan Hogendorn, Marion Johnson: The Shell Money of the Slave Trade . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986, ISBN 978-0-521-32086-3 .
  19. Ganzlaff-Hälsig, Margot (ed.): Handwortbuch Hindi-Deutsch , Hamburg: Buske, 2002, p. 321.
  20. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 23 .
  21. ^ Jan Hogendorn, Marion Johnson: The Shell Money of the Slave Trade . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986, ISBN 978-0-521-32086-3 , pp. 6 .
  22. A small lesson on porcelain. In: die-kulturabrik.de. Retrieved December 13, 2010 .
  23. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 3 .
  24. a b Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 40 .
  25. a b c d Max Ebert: Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte . tape 5 . De Gruyter, 1926, p. 210 .
  26. Ganzlaff-Hälsig, Margot (ed.): Handwortbuch Hindi-Deutsch , Hamburg: Buske, 2002, p. 322.
  27. a b Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 41 .
  28. Ulrike Dubiel: Amulets, seals and pearls. Studies on typology and customs in the Old and Middle Kingdom . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Friborg / Göttingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-525-53035-1 .
  29. a b Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 31 .
  30. ^ Warwick Bray, David Trump : Lexicon of Archeology . Edison Prager, Munich 1973, ISBN 978-3-7796-4004-2 , p. 182 (English: Dictionary to archeology . 1970.).
  31. ^ Johannes Hoops: Reallexikon Der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd Edition. tape 16 . Göttingen 2000, ISBN 978-3-11-016782-5 , p. 345 .
  32. ^ Johannes Hoops: Reallexikon Der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd Edition. tape 16 . Göttingen 2000, ISBN 978-3-11-016782-5 , p. 344 ff .
  33. ^ Jan Hogendorn, Marion Johnson: The Shell Money of the Slave Trade . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986, ISBN 978-0-521-32086-3 , pp. 199 ff .
  34. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 43 .
  35. ^ Jan Hogendorn, Marion Johnson: The Shell Money of the Slave Trade . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986, ISBN 978-0-521-32086-3 , pp. 81 .
  36. ^ Jan Hogendorn, Marion Johnson: The Shell Money of the Slave Trade . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986, ISBN 978-0-521-32086-3 , pp. 12 f .
  37. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 45 .
  38. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 46 .
  39. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 39 .
  40. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 44 .
  41. Thomas Effertz (Canadian Coins): The market value of the cowrie shell over time. In: Numismatic Forum. July 12, 2002, accessed December 20, 2010 .
  42. Maria Schilder: The cowrie snail . Geest & Portig, Leipzig 1952, p. 30-40 .
  43. Checklist of Cypraeidae by Felix Lorenz. (No longer available online.) In: cowries.info. Archived from the original on June 7, 2011 ; accessed on January 9, 2016 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.cowries.info
  44. Bouchet and Rocroi: Working classification of the Gastropoda . In: Malacologia . tape 47 , 2005, p. 250 .
  45. ^ Victor Millard: Classification of the Mollusca . A Classification of World Wide Mollusca. Rhine Road, 1997, ISSN  0076-2997 , p. 104 .