Two-speed Europe
The model of a Europe of two (or: different ) speeds is a concept of flexible integration in Europe . It says that the member states of the European Union do not necessarily have to go along with all further integration steps from the start, but that there can be different levels of cooperation. In some cases, the model also includes European states that are not members of the EU - especially with regard to neighborhood policy and enlargement debates (see also “ Europe of concentric circles ”). As a result, not all European states always have the same level of integration, but rather participate to varying degrees in cooperation in certain policy areas.
Proposals for a Europe of two or more speeds within the EC or the EU go back to the 1980s and have since been discussed again and again in the various reforms of the EU Treaty . They found practical implementation in the general construct of increased cooperation , with the Schengen Agreement , the European Economic and Monetary Union , the Agreement on Social Policy , or PESCO , in which not all EU member states are or were involved.
The term “speed” is also intended to indicate that the fundamental goal of “ever closer union” ( preamble to the EUV ) is not being given up, but rather is being achieved at different speeds. Countries that are particularly willing to integrate and want to advance more quickly with stronger cooperation in certain policy areas are often referred to in this context as core Europe .
Models
There are several variants of the model of the different speeds: One concept suggests developing a core Europe more quickly until a formal European federation is established (as a "federation within the confederation"). On the other hand, there is the alternative concept of “graded integration” , which relocates further development to multinational treaties which, in addition to the states of inner Europe, also include other states depending on the possibility of the integration field. Related to this is the model of a “Europe à la carte” , in which each state only participates in those treaty elements in which it is interested.
Core Europe
The term core Europe became known in particular through a position paper by the German CDU politicians Wolfgang Schäuble and Karl Lamers , who in September 1994, in the run-up to the Treaty of Amsterdam , demanded that a group of states within the European Union should promote integration through closer cooperation . Germany and France should play a leading role in this, and Belgium , the Netherlands and Luxembourg should also be involved in the cooperation. These countries should "act together, noticeably more community-oriented than others and bring joint initiatives." However, Schäuble and Lamers did not call for any formal institutionalization of the core European states and emphasized that the close cooperation should remain open to all other EU countries willing to integrate.
In the public debate, however, the concept of a core Europe is often also associated with institutional differentiation within the EU, in which a group of member states is more closely integrated in various policy areas while others do not participate permanently. Such a union within the Union is repeatedly brought up in the debate, especially in the core European countries. However, other politicians refrain from such proposals, as they divide Europe more than some. In particular, the former German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer , who in his well-known Humboldt speech in May 2000 called for a core European federation as an integration engine, later clearly moved away from this concept.
In 2003, on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the Élysée Treaty of 1963, EU Commissioners Pascal Lamy (France) and Günter Verheugen presented the Lamy Verheugen Plan , named after them , which proposes significantly closer cooperation between Germany and France (e.g. Merging of the armed forces), but at least confederative structures that go far beyond what is provided for in the EU Treaty . One goal would be to create an effective counterweight against the USA and its possibilities for international influence and military intervention. Previously, the options for action by European states in the war in Yugoslavia had proven to be limited.
The experience of security restrictions has led a group of states to merge their structures more quickly. The Eurocorps emerged from the Franco-German Brigade and is now subordinate to brigades from Germany, France, Belgium and Spain. Poland is participating with a brigade for training purposes, other countries are sending staff to the staff and support service. In addition to this standing army of a European army of around 60,000 men, there is the multinational 1st German-Dutch Corps and the European Air Group together with the European Air Transport Command as the core of the European air force - the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Germany are involved in the latter , Spain and Luxembourg show interest in participating.
Graduated integration and "Europe à la carte"
Although the idea of a core Europe is discussed again and again, especially by Germany and France, the model of graded integration has de facto been implemented. With the Treaty of Amsterdam in 1997, this found a formal basis in the form of the political instrument of enhanced cooperation .
Graduated integration
This political mechanism enables at least nine Member States of the European Union to adopt legal acts under the existing treaties which are only valid in the Member States that have joined the enhanced cooperation. To this end, and to issue the necessary implementing provisions , the respective member states make use of the procedures and bodies of the European Union . The only special feature is that only those member states are entitled to vote in the Council that are taking part in the enhanced cooperation. De facto, an existing EU authority can then possibly act on two types of legal basis in the member states - with the general European legal basis or on the basis of the provisions of enhanced cooperation. If another Member State later decides to participate in enhanced cooperation, it can join it.
Enhanced cooperation should not be confused with the broader term of graded integration , which is outside the legal framework mentioned. Historical examples of such a gradual integration are the Schengen Agreement , which was initially concluded by some Member States outside the EU framework. This was incorporated into the legal framework of the European Union in 1997 as a special kind of enhanced cooperation through a protocol to the Treaty of Amsterdam . This protocol had to be ratified by all member states and contains deviations from the general rules on enhanced cooperation .
Further examples of the gradual integration are the European Monetary Union (introduced in 1993 with the Maastricht Treaty ) or the permanent structured cooperation within the framework of the common security and defense policy (introduced with the Lisbon Treaty ). An example of a graduated integration that now applies to all Member States is the social protocol to the Maastricht Treaty, which the United Kingdom also joined in 1997 with the Amsterdam Treaty , after which it was incorporated into the regular text of the Treaty.
The graded integration model makes the integration process more flexible without having to establish parallel authorities alongside the authorities of the European Union, as would be necessary for a “core Europe”. Instead, institutions for the implementation of the individual contracts can be established as required and expanded as development progresses. The patchwork of legal stocks within Europe is problematic, however, which in the case of cross-border projects requires an examination of which legal situation is relevant.
Europe à la carte
Related to the model of gradual integration is the concept of a Europe à la carte , which has been repeatedly proposed in particular by less integration-friendly states such as Great Britain : the member states should only agree on a minimum of goals that are binding for all countries involved (e.g. B. the internal market ); In all other policy areas (e.g. monetary union , foreign policy , defense policy , freedom of movement , refugee and asylum policy , internal security , judicial policy ), only the willing states should take specific steps towards unification, while the rest should continue to retain national sovereignty. This model could also be legally implemented with the help of enhanced cooperation. However, while the representatives of the graduated integration mostly ascribe a pioneering role to the enhanced cooperation - which other member states can later join - Europe à la carte is usually understood as a state of permanently unequal integration depth.
Special case "flexible cooperation"
In 1997, the Treaty of Amsterdam included enhanced cooperation in the EU / EC Treaty, which provides for a fixed procedure for integration steps at the level of secondary law of only some of the member states, so-called enhanced cooperation . However, little use has been made of it in practice.
Delimitations
Without factual reference to the depth and intensity of the cooperation between the EU Member States, the following are occasionally discussed:
Inner Six and Outer Seven
| Inner Six | Outer Seven |
|---|---|
Although some EFTA states applied for membership in the EC as early as 1961, tensions with France repeatedly led to delays in the enlargement process .
Inner Europe
If, in addition to EU membership, one takes cooperation in the military ( NATO , Eurocorps / European Army ), monetary ( European Monetary Union ) and security policy ( Schengen Agreement ) areas as a yardstick, at the moment Belgium , Germany , Estonia , France , Greece , Italy , Lithuania , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Portugal , Slovakia , Slovenia and Spain are part of a core Europe that is half rightly so called. In addition, Denmark is involved in the European Exchange Rate Mechanism II , which is the last stage before joining the Eurozone. Denmark and Great Britain have signed the Maastricht Treaty, which included the euro, but they use the option of an opt-out clause. Although Sweden cannot claim this opt-out, it is still intentionally failing to comply with ERM II. Ireland is not in the Schengen zone to avoid an external border with Northern Ireland as Great Britain is not a Schengen member. However, both the UK and Ireland have had a cooperation agreement with the Schengen area since 1999 that allows them to participate in a subset of the Schengen systems. Malta and Cyprus are considering joining NATO - although Austria and Finland take part in EU military operations and also belong to NATO's Partnership for Peace , they are not NATO members.
| country | EU membership | NATO membership / Eurocorps troops |
Schengen Agreement signature / start of actual application |
Monetary Union Introduction of the euro as book money / cash |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 1958 | 1955/ 1992 | 1985/ 1995 | 1999/ 2002 |
| France | 1958 | 1949/ 1992 | 1985/ 1995 | 1999/ 2002 |
| Italy | 1958 | 1949 / staff | 1990/ 1997 | 1999/ 2002 |
| Belgium | 1958 | 1949/ 1993 | 1985/ 1995 | 1999/ 2002 |
| Netherlands | 1958 | 1949 / 1st Corps | 1985/ 1995 | 1999/ 2002 |
| Luxembourg | 1958 | 1949/ 1996 | 1985/ 1995 | 1999/ 2002 |
| Greece | 1981 | 1952 / staff | 1992/ 2000 | 2001/ 2002 |
| Spain | 1986 | 1982/ 1994 | 1992/ 1995 | 1999/ 2002 |
| Portugal | 1986 | 1949 | 1992/ 1995 | 1999/ 2002 |
| Slovakia | 2004 | 2004 | 2004/ 2007 | 2004/ 2009 |
| Slovenia | 2004 | 2004 | 2004/ 2007 | 2004/ 2007 |
| Estonia | 2004 | 2004 | 2004/ 2007 | 2004/ 2011 |
| Latvia | 2004 | 2004 | 2004/ 2007 | 2004/ 2014 |
| Lithuania | 2004 | 2004 | 2004/ 2007 | 2004/ 2015 |
| Denmark | 1973 | 1949 | 1996/ 2001 | ( WKM II 1999) / no |
| Poland | 2004 | 1999 / staff | 2004/ 2007 | No |
| Czech Republic | 2004 | 1999 | 2004/ 2007 | No |
| Romania | 2007 | 2004 / staff | 2007 | No |
| Bulgaria | 2007 | 2004 | 2007 | No |
| Hungary | 2004 | 1999 | 2004/ 2007 | No |
| Malta | 2004 | No | 2004/ 2007 | 2004/ 2008 |
| Cyprus | 2004 | No | 2004 | 2004/ 2008 |
| Austria | 1995 | no / staff | 1995/ 1997 | 1999/ 2002 |
| Finland | 1995 | No | 1996/ 2001 | 1999/ 2002 |
| Ireland | 1973 | No | No | 1999/ 2002 |
| Sweden | 1995 | No | 1996/ 2001 | No |
| United Kingdom | 1973 | 1949 | No | No |
| Croatia | 2013 | 2009 | No | No |
| Norway | No | 1949 | 1996/ 2001 | No |
| Iceland | No | 1949 | 1996/ 2001 | No |
| Liechtenstein | No | No | 2008/ 2011 | No |
| Switzerland | No | No | 2005/ 2008 | No |
| Monaco | No | No | 1995 (de facto) | 2002 |
| San Marino | No | No | 1997 (de facto) | 2002 |
| Vatican city | No | No | 1997 (de facto) | 2002 |
| Andorra | No | No | No | 2002 |
| Turkey | Candidate for membership | 1952 / staff | No | No |
| North Macedonia | Candidate for membership | 2020 | No | No |
| Montenegro | Candidate for membership | 2017 | No | 2002 |
| Albania | Candidate for membership | 2009 | No | No |
| Serbia | Candidate for membership | No | No | No |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | Application for membership | Candidate for membership | No | No |
Participation of non-EU states in EU policies
A number of countries have special relations with the European Union and adopt their legislation in certain areas . This is especially true for Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, the only remaining members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), while all other former EFTA members are now EU members. Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein (but not Switzerland) have formed the European Economic Area together with the European Union since 1994 . As a result of this participation in the EU internal market, they also have to implement parts of the legislation of the European Union . Formally, however, they do not have to finance the EU, but in practice they take on their part of the financing of the EU institutions, insofar as they are bound by the relevant EU law. In this regard, Norway's financial contribution has been at the same level as the EU funding of a full EU member since 2009. Norway and especially Iceland are known to refuse EU membership because of the fishing regulation . Both states are part of the Schengen zone. Norway is a member of NATO, and Iceland was a member from 1949 to 2006. During the turmoil of the financial crisis, Iceland was considering joining the euro zone and formally applied for EU membership in 2009. Norway has so far acceded to all political EU treaties and has applied for EU membership several times, but although it has long met the requirements of membership, it was prevented from membership by a veto in referendums in 1972 and 1994 - the result is Norway Although the content is largely integrated in the European Union, it has no representation in its institutions due to its lack of membership. The Turkey takes over European legislation in certain areas, as it since January 1, 1996 with the EU is a customs union is formed. Since that date, European business law has been in effect in Turkey, to which Ankara has to adapt its own trade relations with non-EU countries - "third countries".
"Euro rescue packages"
After the beginning of the crisis, often referred to in the media as the “ euro crisis ” (see also Greek sovereign debt crisis from 2010 , euro crisis ) , the creation of a euro rescue package was agreed in May 2010 . This was first agreed with the European Financial Stability Facility ("EFSF"); this was later replaced by the ESM . In the area of euro rescue packages, there are also aspects of integration according to variable speeds, since not all EU countries participate in these euro rescue packages and the euro rescue packages are based on special contractual agreements that are outside the law of the European Union .
literature
- Fritz Breuss u. Stefan Griller (Ed.): Flexible integration in Europe, unity or “Europe a la carte”? Vienna: Springer, 1998. ISBN 3-211-83117-7
- Kai-Olaf Lang: Poland and core Europe . In: WeltTrends. Journal for International Politics and Comparative Studies , 50 (2006), pp. 27–39 ( full text )
- Simone Weske: Germany and France - Motor of a European Security and Defense Policy? Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2006. ISBN 3-8329-1480-3
Web links
- Schäuble-Lamers paper (Bonn, September 1, 1994; PDF file; 71 kB)
- Andreas Middel and Jochen Hehn: Skepticism in Berlin and Paris about confederation , Die Welt, November 15, 2003
- France Info No. 1 - January 2004 ( Friedrich Ebert Foundation , PDF file)
- sueddeutsche.de / Stefan Ulrich September 6, 2017: Two European cars ( comment )
Individual evidence
- ↑ Definition of core Europe
- ↑ Two-speed Europe , Federal Agency for Civic Education 2009
- ^ Two speeds for Europe , Deutsche Welle (DW-World.de), June 26, 2007
- ↑ Schäuble-Lamers-Papier ( Memento of the original from September 28, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 73 kB) on the website of the CDU / CSU parliamentary group in the German Bundestag.
- ↑ Kerneuropa , Lexicon of the Federal Agency for Political Education .
- ↑ See Core Europe? I do not rule that out (interview with the Luxembourg Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker ), Die Zeit , December 11, 2003
- ↑ Fischer buries his core Europe idea , Der Spiegel , February 28, 2004
- ↑ Elaboration by Jan Große-Geldermann of January 31, 2006 with 18 references for the term: Core Europe ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 130 kB)
- ^ Frank R. Pfetsch, Timm Beichelt: The European Union: History, Institutions, Processes Portugal spoke out against a Europe of two speeds, also in the currency area.
- ^ Integration policy of the European Union , Federal Agency for Civic Education, January 27, 2008
