Mummification in ancient Egypt

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Egyptian mummy

Mummification in ancient Egypt (also embalming , mummification ) describes the ancient Egyptian process, which was used after death to protect against the disintegration of the human or animal body. The process originally served to preserve the body of the deceased king ( Pharaoh ) as a deified image in connection with hisrebirth that took placewith the ascension of heaven . The mummy produced in this way represented as Oh the King, later theKing who had become Osiris ,who entered the world of the godsas the "son of Nut " in the sarcophagus , "her womb".

In the further course of ancient Egyptian history , the mythological orientation changed. With the introduction of the Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom , the “normal Egyptian” also had the opportunity to belong to the “Achu” by mummifying in the entourage of the deceased king. The funeral rites of the “ solution ”, which were performed from the day of the death of the deceased until the burial, included mummification and other magical acts, which ideally lasted a total of 70 days. The Egyptians derived the period of 70 days from the mythological- normative invisibility period of the ancient Egyptian constellation Sopdet .

The process of mummification is described in detail by the Greek writer Herodotus in his second book of histories .

General

Natural mummification in a predynastic tomb

The practice of mummification in ancient Egypt was based on the belief in life after death . The Egyptians buried their dead from the Predynastic Period (approx. 4000–3032 BC) in the desert, where they were naturally preserved by the dryness, heat and salinity of the sand. At this time there are also the first signs of artificial mummification. Investigations on mummies in Badari and Mostagedda have shown that experiments with various embalming techniques were carried out on them very early on. The dead were wrapped in linen bandages soaked in resin , which, thanks to their antibacterial properties, provided additional protection against decay .

At the latest from King Djoser (3rd Dynasty, Old Kingdom ), the rubbing of the body is covered with potash , which was used to dry the body. Earlier assumptions that the bodies were in a soda bath have now been refuted.

In the Old Kingdom it was recognized that the internal organs had to be removed in order to prevent the decomposition process. In their place came dry substances. Then, as in predynasticism, the dead were rubbed with resin and wrapped with bandages, which in women very much resembled a dress and in men a pair of trousers. Over time there have been changes in the mummification and also in the storage of the internal organs.

Changes in mummification

There are some changes in the mummification of ancient Egypt. In the very early days, the dead were wrapped in bandages so that each limb was wrapped individually. In the course of time, the dead were wrapped in more and more linen cloths so that when they were finished, mummified, they looked like a shapeless cocoon. This process used around 375 square meters of fabric. Many small talismans and amulets were also wrapped. During this time, the finished mummy and the mask made of stuccoed, brightly painted linen were placed in a wooden coffin that was roughly human in shape. This wooden coffin with the mummy was placed in a second rectangular stone coffin. According to the Egyptian belief, the dead can look out into the world through the large eyes painted on the mask and the eyes painted on the wall at the head of the stone coffin (the mummy is on its side).

Storage of internal organs

Canopic jugs from the tomb of Iti 19th Dynasty, around 1200 BC BC Limestone, Egyptian Museum Berlin

After death, the decay process begins first in the organs and the brain. When the brain decomposes, it runs out of the occipital hole and only a dark brown spongy mass remains from the remnants of the blood vessels and meninges in the skull. The Egyptians had observed this early on and therefore removed the brain with a long hook through the nose. Scientists have long been of the opinion that the brain had not been removed because they could not find any damage to the skull. The other organs were removed through a simple incision in the abdomen.

Four canopic jugs were traditionally used for storage . But sometimes they were more symbolic, because you often found empty organs and the associated organs still in the body. In later times, the packaging of the organs became more complex. They were wrapped individually in linen cloths, placed in the canopic jars and doused with a resin-like anointing oil. These jugs often stood in a sack-shaped stone box and the closures of the jugs were made into human heads until the 18th Dynasty ( New Kingdom ). In the Old Kingdom there were originally only two protective gods of the canopic jars: Amset and Hapi , only later the two other protective gods Duamutef and Kebechsenuef were added and all four were called " Sons of Horus ". The pyramid texts represent them as a kind of guide for the dead person's journey to the hereafter. They take part in the resuscitation, carry the deceased to the grave, perform the mouth opening ritual and take part in the hour watch.

However, their main task is to protect the corpse from hunger, thirst and the organs affected by them, the intestines, with the heart and kidneys not belonging to these organs. The entrails removed during the mummification were wrapped in bandages and separated into liver, lungs, stomach and abdominal organs and buried in four canopies, sometimes in miniature coffins (see Tutankhamun ). Each jar was under the protection of a son of Horus. Since the New Kingdom there have been the following assignments of the sons of Horus as protectors of the organs:

Horus son assigned organ
Amset (human) liver
Hapi (baboon) lung
Duamutef (jackal) stomach
Kebechsenuef (falcon) Abdomen (intestines)

Mummification process

When a wealthy citizen or dignitary died in ancient Egypt , the corpse was taken to the embalming house , where the priests placed it on a wooden or stone table. The embalmers either worked outside the town on the Nile or near an irrigation canal, because plenty of water was needed to wash the body.

Washing of the corpse and removal of the brain

According to Herodotus , the beginning of the embalming was the washing of the corpse . Then the brain was removed. The collection was made through the nostrils. To do this, you pierced the ethmoid bone and cut open the meninges to gain access to the brain. This was then whisked with a hook until it had the consistency of a thick paste. After a while, the brain liquefied due to natural decay. The nostrils were artificially widened so that the brain could flow out better. In addition to the cerebral matter and the meninges, it could now be removed with a hook through the nose. This had to be done carefully, as the corpse's face could not be damaged if it had to be recognized in the judgment of the dead .

Then heated, thin liquid anointing oil was poured into the skull . The anointing oil consisted of a mixture of different resins , beeswax , aromatic vegetable oils and sometimes also of pitch . Many of these components, such as resin and pitch, had to be imported from neighboring countries.

Removal of the entrails

After what was arguably the most difficult part was done, the embalmers turned to the body of the corpse. They drew a line along the left flank and cut open the abdomen with an obsidian blade . The entrails were then removed . However, not all organs were removed, for example the heart almost always remained , which, according to the understanding of the time, was the seat of all body and mind forces. The kidneys were also left behind in the corpse because their function was not known and they were also difficult to reach.

Then the abdominal cavity was cleaned with palm wine and aromatic essences, filled with myrrh powder and other substances. The liquid had to be removed from the corpse so that it was not exposed to decay. Dry baking soda or nitrone was used for this. The stomach , lungs , intestines and liver were treated with grated incense and then also placed in baking soda. The treatment with the baking soda lasted about 35-40 days.

Anointing oil treatment and body cavity filling

After this drying phase, the actual embalming could begin: after washing, heated anointing oil was poured into the body and carefully rubbed in. The rough skin regained its elasticity and it no longer looked so dry.

The separately prepared after its removal intestines and internal organs (lungs, intestines, stomach and liver) were reacted after treatment with ointment in four jugs - the so-called canopi . These are vessels made of alabaster , stone or clay , the lids of which were designed as the heads of four guardian gods of the viscera, the four sons of Horus . The jugs were kept in boxes. The canopies are supposed to protect the organs.

The chest and abdomen were now filled with a wide variety of objects: linen packets , soda bags, often sawdust mixed with spices, seeds and lichen were used. In addition, there were sometimes large quantities of spices such as myrrh, frankincense , oils , cedar resin , fats and beeswax, which, in addition to their fragrance, were also thought to have a preservative effect. This prevented the body cavity from collapsing and the corpse regained its natural volume. The nostrils were filled in a number of ways, e.g. B. Tutankhamun's mummy with linen bandages soaked in anointing oil, and Ramses II. Surprisingly with peppercorns.

Since the dehydration also caused the eyeballs to shrink a lot, they simply put linen bags, small kitchen onions or painted stones in them. The fingers were wrapped with string to stabilize the fingernails. In addition, onion skins were glued to the eyes, mouth, nose and throat and whole onions were attached to the soles of the feet. The use of onions and other plant objects, however, varied greatly.

Important parts of the body were sometimes protected with appropriately shaped gold plating; In the mouth area there were isolated golden tongue plates. In the case of lavishly decorated royal mummies, sensitive areas such as fingers and toes were separately protected by gold sleeves.

The cut in the stomach has now been closed again. This was done only occasionally by sewing (as described by Herodotus), but mostly with linen, a wax sheet or, in the case of royal persons, with a thin sheet of gold.

Wrapping of the mummy body

Painted mummy bandage

Now you had to wrap the body with bandages . For wrapping, they either used materials specially bought for the funeral or used household and clothing textiles torn into matching strips. Before the actual winding, all sanitary napkins were sorted according to type of use, length, width and thickness and the beginning of each lane was marked. In order to wrap the body with bandages without any problems, it lay on a specially made couch. In elaborately manufactured mummies, each individual limb was bandaged in several layers , then the extremities and finally the entire trunk . This ritual, which is carried out according to fixed rules, was usually supervised by a priest wearing the mask of the jackal-headed god Anubis . The bandages were glued together with resin. Finally, large-format shrouds with deities painted on them could also be used for wrapping.

During this process numerous magical amulets made of faience , semi-precious stones and other precious materials were added, which were either loosely wrapped or sewn onto the mummy bandages. They all had very special protective functions and were intended to ensure the regeneration of the deceased after his death. Often a heart scarab with magical formulas was placed on the chest of the deceased and wrapped or enclosed with the heart. The use of these formulas was intended to avoid the heart testifying against its owner at the judgment of the dead. Sometimes a roll of papyrus several meters long , the Book of the Dead, was placed between the hands of the embalmed and wrapped or placed in the coffin. These texts, written on papyrus or linen, are a collection of spells and advice that, similar to a travel guide, should help the deceased to find their way around the realm of the dead .

Coffin laying

The mummification of the corpse is just an attempt to equip the dead for eternity. After the corpse had been physically protected by embalming and wrapping with linen bandages and also mentally and magically by amulets, further protection was required in the form of a coffin and, if possible, a sarcophagus to enclose it . The coffin was usually painted on the inside. Doors and eyes played an important role so that the deceased could perceive his grave goods and step his ka into the outside world. In the Old Kingdom and at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom , the coffins were still box-shaped, after which they were made in an anthropomorphic (human) shape.

After embalming

After the embalming, priests performed various rituals on the mummy, such as the opening of the mouth ceremony , which was intended to restore the use of his senses to the deceased. It consisted of numerous individual acts: sacrificing cleansing, smoking, repeated anointing, and touching the face with specially designed devices.

costs

Herodotus reports three different types of complex mummification. Due to the high price of the oils and substances that were necessary for mummification in ancient Egypt, there were correspondingly different qualities of mummification. Pharaohs and their wives, and occasionally cats, who were worshiped as animal gods , were consistently mummified with the highest level of quality, which was only the case with royal scribes and other high-ranking civil servants in exceptional cases. According to Diodorus , such mummification cost a talent that only rich people could afford. For the mummification of medium quality he gives a price of twenty mines, the mummification of the simplest category is said to have cost hardly anything. A papyrus from Roman times gives the mummification costs as 440 drachmas and 16 obols.

Summary

Mummification consists of the following steps:

  1. First washing of the corpse
  2. Removal of the brain through the nostrils
  3. Pouring anointing oil into the skull
  4. Removal of the viscera
  5. Second washing of the corpse
  6. Dehydration of the corpse and the intestines with baking soda (35-40 days)
  7. Third washing of the corpse
  8. Anointing of the corpse and organs after drainage
  9. Stuffing of the body cavities
  10. Special treatment for certain parts of the body (e.g. nails)
  11. Closure of the incision
  12. Final preparations before bandaging
  13. Bandaging the mummy (15 days)

Animal mummies

Cat mummy

Embalming was not only performed on humans, but also on animals . For example, if a favorite animal died (e.g. dog, cat), it could also be mummified. Sometimes special coffins and steles were made. The dog Abutiu even received a ceremonial burial like a human dignitary at the behest of the Pharaoh.

The Egyptians also saw the embodiment of a deity in individual animals . These were kept in temples , provided with food and sometimes hung with jewelry. When these animals died, they were given an elaborate burial, such as baboons. Particularly noteworthy is the Apis bull , which was buried mummified in its own tomb, the Serapeum in Saqqara .

Cats, crocodiles, dogs, falcons , scarabs , shrews and snakes were also mummified .

literature

(sorted chronologically)

Article base

  • Emma Brunner-Traut : Egypt. Art and Travel guide with regional studies. 6th, improved edition, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-17-010192-7 , especially pp. 113, 155.
  • Walter Marg (transl.): Herodotus. Stories and history. Artemis, Zurich / Munich 1990, ISBN 978-3-7608-3565-5 (on mummification especially II, p. 86 ff.)
  • Klaus Volke: The chemistry of mummification in ancient Egypt. In: Chemistry in Our Time. Vol. 27, No. 1, 1993, ISSN  0009-2851 , pp. 42-47.

Continuing

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Among other things, described in the Nutbuch : " This is how he (the corpse) cleans itself, this is how it arises in the horizon like the Sopdet ... If he named Sopdet, it is because she spends 70 days in the Duat and then appears again" ; according to Alexandra von Lieven : Floor plan of the course of the stars - the so-called groove book . The Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Ancient Eastern Studies (et al.), Copenhagen 2007, ISBN 978-87-635-0406-5 , p. 88.
  2. ↑ Egypt: Mummification is older than expected: the dead were embalmed as early as the Neolithic - according to the same recipe as later the pharaohs. In: scinexx . August 14, 2014, accessed August 16, 2014 .
  3. ↑ Egyptian mummies. Immortality in the land of the pharaohs . Edited by Landesmuseum Württemberg, Stuttgart, von Zabern, Mainz 2007, ISBN 978-3-8053-3778-6 , pp. 19-27.